Maria Gloria Macaraeg Macapagal-Arroyo (Tagalog:[ˈɡloɾjamakapaˈɡalʔaˈɾojo]; born April 5, 1947[3]), often referred to asPGMA orGMA, is a Filipino academic and politician who served as the 14thpresident of the Philippines from2001 to 2010. She is the longest-serving president sinceFerdinand Marcos. Before her presidency, she was the 10thvice president of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001 under PresidentJoseph Estrada, becoming the first female vice president. She was also asenator from 1992 to 1998. After her presidency, she was elected as therepresentative ofPampanga's 2nd district in 2010 and continues to serve in this role. She also served as thespeaker of the House from 2018 to 2019, and asdeputy speaker from 2016 to 2017 and 2022 to 2023. Alongside former presidentSergio Osmeña, she is one of only two Filipinos to hold at least three of the four highest offices: vice president, president, and house speaker.[4]
Arroyo is the first president to succeed the presidency as the child of a previous president; her father wasDiosdado Macapagal, the country'sninth president from 1961 to 1965.[5] She studied economics atGeorgetown University in the United States, where she became friends with her classmate and future U.S. presidentBill Clinton.[6] She then became a professor of economics at theAteneo de Manila University, where her eventual successor, PresidentBenigno Aquino III, was one of her students. She entered government in 1987 as assistant secretary and undersecretary of theDepartment of Trade and Industry under PresidentCorazon Aquino, Benigno's mother.
On November 18, 2011, Arroyo was arrested and held at theVeterans Memorial Medical Center inQuezon City on charges ofelectoral sabotage[12][13] but released on bail in July 2012. These charges were later dropped for lack of evidence. She was rearrested in October 2012 on charges of misuse of $8.8 million in state lottery funds.[14] She was given hospital arrest due to life-threatening health conditions.[15] During thepresidency of Rodrigo Duterte, theSupreme Court acquitted her by a vote of 11–4.[16] Also, the Supreme Court declared theDepartment of Justice's 'hold departure orders' unconstitutional.[17][18] Arroyo's lawyers stated afterward that she no longer needed her medical paraphernalia.[19]
Arroyo was born as Maria Gloria Macaraeg Macapagal on April 5, 1947, at St. Luke's Medical Center Extension Clinic inErmita,Manila, Philippines, to lawyerDiosdado Macapagal and his wife,Evangelina de la Cruz Macaraeg. She is the sister of Diosdado "Boboy" Macapagal Jr. She has two older siblings from her father's first marriage with Purita de la Rosa, the sister ofRogelio de la Rosa,[22] Arturo Macapagal and Cielo Macapagal Salgado.[3][23] She was raised mostly inLubao,Pampanga and during summer vacations, she lived with her maternal grandmother inIligan City.[3][24] Arroyo was[when?] the second chief girl scout of theGirl Scouts of the Philippines.[25][26]
In 1987, she was invited by PresidentCorazon Aquino to join the government as assistant secretary of theDepartment of Trade and Industry. She was promoted to undersecretary two years later. In her concurrent position as executive director of the Garments and Textile Export Board, Arroyo oversaw the rapid growth of the garment industry in the late 1980s.[citation needed]
Arroyo entered politics in the1992 election, running forsenator underLaban ng Demokratikong Pilipino (LDP). At the first general election under the 1987 Constitution, the top twelve vote-getting senatorial candidates would win a six-year term, and the next twelve candidates would win a three-year term.[31] Arroyo ranked 13th in the elections, earning a three-year term. She wasre-elected in 1995, topping the senatorial election with nearly 16 million votes.
As a legislator, Arroyo filed over 400 bills and authored or sponsored 55 laws during her tenure as senator, including the Anti-Sexual Harassment Law, the Indigenous People's Rights Law, and the Export Development Act.[3] The 1995 Mining Act, which allows 100% foreign ownership of Philippine mines, has come under fire from left-wing political groups.[32] Arroyo was also openly against the implementation ofcapital punishment in the country, advocating instead for better criminal rehabilitation during her time as Senator.[9]
Arroyo considered a run for the presidency in the1998 election, but was persuaded by Manila ArchbishopJaime Cardinal Sin,[33] PresidentFidel V. Ramos, and leaders of the administration partyLakas–NUCD to instead seek the vice-presidency as the running mate of its presidential candidate, House SpeakerJose de Venecia, Jr.[34] Though the latter lost to popular former actorJoseph Estrada, Arroyo won the vice presidency by a large margin, garnering more than twice the votes of her closest opponent, Estrada's running mate and her former party-mate SenatorEdgardo Angara.[35]
Arroyo began her term as vice president on June 30, 1998, becoming the first female to hold the post. She was appointed by Estrada to a concurrent position in the cabinet assecretary of social welfare and development.[34] As vice president, she was noted by political observers to continuously take a neutral stance on issues facing the government.[36]
Arroyo resigned from the Cabinet in October 2000, distancing herself from Estrada, who was accused of corruption by a former political supporter,Chavit Singson,Governor ofIlocos Sur.[37] She had initially resisted pressure from allies to speak out against Estrada,[38] but eventually joined calls for Estrada's resignation.[37]
The last quarter of 2000 up to the first week of January 2001 was a period of political and economic uncertainty for the Philippines. On January 16, 2001, the impeachment trial also took a new direction. Private prosecutors walked out of the trial when pro-Estrada senators prevented the opening of an evidence (a brown envelope) containing bank records allegedly owned by PresidentJoseph Estrada. With the walkout, the impeachment trial was not completed and Filipinos eventually took to the streets in masses to continue the clamor for President Estrada's resignation.From January 17 to 20, 2001, hundreds of thousands of Filipinos gathered atEpifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), the site of the originalPeople Power Revolution. The clamor for a change in the presidency gained momentum as various sectors of Philippine society – professionals, students, artists, politicians, leftist and rightist groups – joined what became known asEDSA II. Officials of the administration, theArmed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and thePhilippine National Police (PNP), the latter led byPanfilo Lacson, also withdrew their support for President Estrada.
Days after leaving Malacañang Palace, President Estrada's lawyers and allies questioned the legitimacy of Arroyo's presidency before the Supreme Court, with SenatorMiriam Defensor Santiago among the more outspoken politicians to call for his reinstatement as president.[39][40] Estrada reiterated that he had not officially resigned as president and that at most, Arroyo was just serving in an acting capacity. The high court, however, voted unanimously to uphold the legitimacy of Arroyo's succession. As a consequence, Estrada no longer enjoys immunity from charges being filed against him.
In the last week of April 2001, the Sandiganbayan ordered the arrest of Estrada and his son, then mayorJinggoy Estrada, for plunder charges. A few days later, Estrada supporters protested his arrest, gathered at the EDSA Shrine, and staged what they called,EDSA III – comparing their actions to the People Power revolution of 1986 and January 2001.[41]
Thousands of protesters demanded the release of Estrada. Eventually, they also called for the ouster of Arroyo and the reinstatement of the former. On May 1, 2001, they marched towards Malacañang to force Arroyo to give in to their demands. Violence erupted when the protesters attempted to storm the presidential palace and the military and police were ordered to use their arms to drive them back. Arroyo declared a state of rebellion because of the violence and prominent political personalities affiliated with Estrada were charged and arrested.[42] The so-called EDSA III was the first serious political challenge to the Arroyo presidency.
The Oakwood mutiny occurred in the Philippines on July 27, 2003. A group of 321 armed soldiers who called themselves "Bagong Katipuneros"[43] led by Army Capt. Gerardo Gambala and Navy Lt.Antonio Trillanes IV took over the Oakwood Premier Ayala Center (now Ascott Makati) serviced apartment tower inMakati to show the Filipino people the alleged corruption of the Gloria Macapagal Arroyo administration, believing that the president was going to declaremartial law.
Article VII Section 4 of the1987 Constitution explicitly states that the president of the Philippines can only serve for one term. However, the same provision also implicitly states that a president's successor who has not served for more than four years can still seek a full term for the presidency. Although Arroyo fell under this category, she initially announced on December 29, 2002, that she would not seek the presidency in 2004. She emphasized that she would devote her remaining months in office to serving the people and improving the economy of the Philippines.[44]
In October 2003, Arroyo changed her mind and announced that she will run in the May 2004 presidential elections and seek a direct mandate from the people. She explained, "There is a higher cause — to change society...in a way that flourishes our future".[45] With her decision, the initial criticisms hurled against Arroyo centered on her lack of word of honor.
As predicted by SWS exit polls, Arroyo won the election by a margin of over one million votes against Poe. However, the congressional canvassing was quite contentious as opposition lawmakers in the National Board of Canvassers argued that there were many discrepancies in the election returns and that insinuations of cheating were raised.[46] On June 23, 2004, Congress proclaimed Arroyo andNoli de Castro as president and vice president, respectively.
Arroyo taking her Oath of Office for a full term as president before Chief JusticeHilario Davide Jr. inCebu City on June 30, 2004.
On June 30, 2004, in a break with tradition, Arroyo first delivered her inaugural speech at theQuirino Grandstand in Manila.[47] She then departed for Cebu City for her oath taking,[48] the first time that a Philippine president took the oath of office outside ofLuzon.
Allegations of cheating against Arroyo gained momentum one year after the May 2004 elections. In a press conference held on June 10, 2005,Samuel Ong, former deputy director of theNational Bureau of Investigation (NBI) claimed to have audio recordings of wiretapped conversations between Arroyo and an official of theCommission on Elections (COMELEC).[49]Virgilio Garcillano, a former COMELEC commissioner, would later be identified as the official talking to Arroyo.[50] According to Ong, the recordings allegedly proved that Arroyo ordered the rigging of the national elections for her to win by around one million votes against Poe.[51]
The recordings of Ong became known as theHello Garci controversy and triggered massive protests against Arroyo. Key members of her cabinet resigned from their respective posts and urged Arroyo to do the same. On June 27, 2005, Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to a COMELEC official, claiming it was a "lapse in judgement". She, however, denied influencing the outcome of the elections and declared that she won the elections fairly.[52] Arroyo did not resign despite the pressures coming from various sectors of society.
The Hello Garci controversy became the basis of the impeachment case filed against Arroyo in 2005;[53] attempts to impeach Arroyo failed later that year.[54] Another impeachment case was filed against Arroyo in 2006 but was also defeated at theHouse of Representatives.[55][56]
In October 2007, lawyer Alan Paguia filed an impeachment complaint against Arroyo in connection with the issue of bribery. Paguia's complaint was based on the revelation of Pampanga GovernorEd Panlilio that various governors received half a million pesos from Malacañang. The impeachment case, as of the middle of October 2007, has already been referred to the House of Representatives Committee on Justice.
On February 24, 2006, a plot to take over the government was uncovered by authorities, allegedly headed by Gen.Danilo Lim and other rightist military adventurists. General Lim and some of his men were arrested.[57] To face the threat posed by enemies of the state, Arroyo issued Presidential Proclamation 1017 and used it as basis in declaring a state of emergency throughout the Philippines. According to Arroyo, this declaration was done to quell the military rebellion, stop lawless violence, and promote peace and stability.[58][59] Presidential Proclamation 1017 also empowered the government to enforce warrantless arrests and take over strategic private utilities companies.[60] Several members of the Senate, includingFranklin Drilon,Francis Pangilinan, andPia Cayetano, condemned the proclamation as it contravenes "the fundamental guarantees of the Constitution, particularly the basic civil liberties enshrined therein."[61]
The state of emergency existed for about one week with the purpose of curbing further violence, illegal rallies, and public disturbance throughout the Philippines. The police and the military dispersed demonstrators and protesters, especially those along EDSA. Aside from General Lim, prominent personalities were also arrested in connection with their alleged participation in the attempt to overthrow the government.[57][59]
Presidential Proclamation 1017 was lifted on March 3, 2006, but members of the opposition, private lawyers, and concerned citizens challenged its constitutionality before the Supreme Court.[62] On May 4, the high court declared the proclamation constitutional; however, it also ruled it was illegal for the government to implement warrantless arrests and seize private institutions and companies.[63]
Arroyo spearheaded a controversial plan for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present unitary and presidential republic with abicameral legislature into a federal parliamentary government with aunicameral legislature.[64]
After decades of surveys, consultations, and studies starting with the Monroe Survey in 1925 during the American period, the 9-year implementation process ofK–12 curriculum finally began on May 20, 2008 during the Arroyo administration when SenatorMar Roxas filed the Omnibus Education Reform Act of 2008 (Senate Bill 2294) to strengthen the Philippine education system through timely interventions on the quality of teachers, the medium of instruction used and the evaluation of students' aptitude, among other aspects. It mandates the effectivity of K–12 four years later on April 24, 2012 duringthe administration of Arroyo's successor Benigno Aquino III which increase in the number of years in basic education, from 10 years to 12 years as consistent with global standards.[65]
On January 7, 2010, senator and presidential candidateBenigno Aquino III adopted the position of SB 2294; he said this will "give everyone an equal chance to succeed" and "have quality education and profitable jobs."[66][67]
Arroyo, who earned a master's degree and doctorate in economics, made thePhilippine economy the focus of her presidency. Annual economic growth in the Philippines averaged 4.5% during the Arroyo administration, expanding every quarter of her presidency.[68] This is higher than in the administrations of her three immediate predecessors, Corazon Aquino (3.8%),Fidel Ramos (3.7%), and Joseph Estrada (3.7%).[69] The Philippine economy grew at its fastest pace in three decades in 2007, with real GDP growth exceeding 7%.[70] The economy was one of the few to avoid contraction during the2008 financial crisis, faring better than its regional peers due to minimal exposure to troubled international securities, lower dependence on exports, relatively resilient domestic consumption, large remittances from four-to five-million overseas Filipino workers, and a growing business process outsourcing industry.[68] Arroyo's handling of the economy has earned praise from former US president Bill Clinton, who cited her "tough decisions" that put the Philippine economy back in shape.[71] Despite this growth, the poverty rate remained stagnant due to uneven distribution of income.
A controversial expandedvalue added tax (e-VAT) law, considered the centerpiece of the Arroyo administration's economic reform agenda, was implemented in November 2005, aiming to complement revenue-raising efforts that could plug the country's large budget deficit.[72] Her administration originally set a target to balance the national budget by 2010. The tax measure boosted confidence in the government's fiscal capacity and helped to strengthen thePhilippine peso, making it East Asia's best performing currency in 2005–06.[73] The peso strengthened by nearly 20% in 2007, making it one of Asia's better performing currencies for that year, a fact attributed to a combination of increased remittances fromoverseas Filipino workers and a strong domestic economy.[74]
Early in her presidency, Arroyo implemented a controversial policy of holiday economics, adjusting holidays to form longer weekends with the purpose of boosting domestic tourism and allowing Filipinos more time with their families.
Arroyo with U.S. Secretary of StateHillary Clinton, February 17, 2009
Social Weather Stations quarterly public opinion polling of the net satisfaction rating of President Arroyo
TheSocial Weather Stations public opinion group has conducted quarterly surveys tracking the net satisfaction rating ("satisfied" rating minus "dissatisfied" rating") of President Arroyo. She began her presidency in the first quarter of 2001 with a net satisfaction rating of +24. Her rating first dipped into the negative in the first quarter of 2003, making Arroyo the only president to achieve a negative net satisfaction rating in SWS opinion polling. Her rating rebounded well into the positive in 2004, in time for the presidential election where she won election to a new six-year term. However, net satisfaction sunk back into negative territory in the fourth quarter of 2004, and has remained negative since, dipping as low as −38 in the second quarter of 2008. Her net satisfaction rating in the first quarter of 2009 was −32.[75]
Arroyo at theWorld Economic Forum meeting in Davos, Switzerland in January 31, 2009
In November 2009, Arroyo formally declared her intention to run for a seat in theHouse of Representatives representing the2nd district ofPampanga, making her the second Philippine president – afterJose P. Laurel – to pursue a lower office after the expiration of their presidency.[76] A petition seeking to disqualify Arroyo from the race was dismissed by the COMELEC for lack of merit, a decision which was later affirmed by the Supreme Court.[77] With little serious competition, she was elected to Congress in May 2010 with a landslide victory.[78] After receiving final military honors at the inauguration ceremony of incoming PresidentBenigno Aquino III, she headed straight toSan Fernando, Pampanga for her own oath-taking as congresswoman.[79]
Despite being considered the strongest contender forspeaker of the House, Arroyo declined to seek the position, hoping instead to take on a role similar toSonia Gandhi, who was influential as merely the head of her party.[80] On her first day as a lawmaker, Arroyo and her son Dato filed a resolution calling for Congress to call aconstitutional convention to propose amendments to the existing constitution.[81]
While still confined in theVeterans Memorial Medical Center for hospital arrest, Arroyo successfully earned a second term as congresswoman for Pampanga's second congressional district at the conclusion of the2013 Philippine mid-term elections on May 13, 2013, defeating the rulingLiberal Party's Vivian Dabu, who was the provincial administrator under former GovernorEd Panlilio.[82] She was re-elected in2016 for her third consecutive term, running unopposed.
In early 2011, Arroyo was diagnosed with cervical spondylosis or cervicalradiculopathy. She was rushed to theSt. Luke's Medical Center inTaguig on July 25, 2011, minutes after the State of the Nation Address by Benigno Aquino III.[83] Doctors performed a five-hour spine surgery on July 29, 2011.[84] Two more surgeries occurred in August 2011, which aggravated herhypoparathyroidism. The House of Representatives, under the leadership of SpeakerFeliciano Belmonte, Jr., issued a travel permit allowing her to have treatment in Germany despite theDepartment of Justice hold departure order.[85]
Arroyo was arrested on November 18, 2011, after thePasay Regional Court Branch 112 issued a warrant of arrest against her, following the filing of a complaint for electoral sabotage by the COMELEC.[86] The arrest warrant, signed by Judge Jesus Mupas was served at the St. Luke's Medical Center in Taguig where Arroyo had been confined.[87][88]
The case was later dismissed in 2018 by the same Pasay court due to the prosecution's failure to prove guilt beyond reasonable doubt. The dismissal, signed by Judge Mupas, cleared Arroyo of the electoral sabotage charges.[89][90]
Earlier, the Supreme Court had issued a resolution enjoining attempts by the Department of Justice to prevent her departure from the Philippines to seek medical treatment overseas.[91]
On October 29, 2012, she refused to enter any plea on charges she misused $8.8 million in state lottery funds during her term in office.[93] As of December 2013, she was still in custody at the Veterans Memorial Medical Center.[94] On July 19, 2016, the Supreme Court dismissed the corruption charges and ordered her release from the hospital where she had been detained since 2011.[95]
Arroyo was transported toSt. Luke's Medical Center – Quezon City for tests and treatment and returned to confinement at the Veteran's Medical Center after medical incidents in May and June 2014.[96][97][98] In June, after the second of these incidents, her attorneys renewed application for bail.[99] In September, a third medical incident caused her to be again rushed to St. Luke's for treatment and returned to confinement at the Veteran's Medical Center.[100]
2015 United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention
In a case filed by human rights lawyerAmal Clooney, the United NationsWorking Group on Arbitrary Detention declared Arroyo's hospital detention arbitrary and violative of the international law on human rights. It recognized that the charges against Arroyo were politically motivated since she was detained as a result of her exercise to take part in government and that the detention was arbitrary and illegal under international law because the Sandiganbayan court failed to take into account her individual circumstances when it repeatedly denied her bail.[101]
On July 19, 2016, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the dismissal of the plunder case against Arroyo because of insufficient evidence, gathering a vote of 11–4 which was read by spokespersonTheodore Te.[102][103]
Supreme Court decision on Arroyo's motion to dismiss plunder case
House Speaker Arroyo, Chinese PresidentXi Jinping (center), and Senate PresidentTito Sotto during a joint call of the Philippine Senate and House of Representatives on November 21, 2018
Arroyo was elected as the first female speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines.[104] The election pushed through on July 23, 2018, due to a controversial[105] majority manifesto and vote that oustedPantaleon Alvarez. In August 2018, amid rumors that she was gunning to become prime minister under a proposed federal government, which she was advocating in the House, Arroyo stated that she will retire from politics and would not pursue any position after theMay 2019 elections.[106]
In January 2019, her speakership passed a House bill which lowered the criminal liability to twelve years old.[107][108] She had a net satisfaction rating of −4 in September 2018, which further dropped to −21 in January 2019, becoming one of the most unpopular House speakers in Philippine history.[109] Her leadership also spearheaded the changing of House rules in relation to Statements of Assets, Liabilities, and Net Worth (SALNs), requiring a₱300 fee for access, which amounts to₱87,300 for the SALNs of all 291 members of the House of Representatives, making it difficult for the poor to monitor corruption in the House.[110]
In February 2019, SenatorPanfilo Lacson accused Arroyo of adding an additionalpork barrel of₱60–160 million in the national budget.[111]
Arroyo, although not holding any elective position, has been participating as a member ofLakas–CMD. As of June 2019, she is working on a memoir narrating her experiences as president, which she plans on limiting to 200 pages for consumption by the general public.[112]
On November 26, 2020, PresidentRodrigo Duterte appointed Arroyo as presidential adviser onClark programs and projects.[113]
Arroyo came out of retirement to seek a comeback to the House of Representatives in2022, running unopposed for the2nd district of Pampanga.[114] Her legal counsel, Peter Paul Magalang, filed the certificate of candidacy on her behalf.[115] She has declared support to thecandidacies ofBongbong Marcos for president and new Lakas party-mateSara Duterte for vice president.[116][117] She also joined the caravans and campaign sorties of theirUniTeam alliance.[118][119]
On May 10, 2022, Arroyo was proclaimed as representative of the 2nd district of Pampanga, succeeding her son Mikey once again for a fourth nonconsecutive term.[120] Although she assumed office on June 30, 2022,[121] she took her oath of office on May 26 inLubao[122] and on June 13 before outgoing PresidentRodrigo Duterte at theMalacañang Palace.[123] Arroyo said she will join her fellow representatives in passing the legislative agenda of theadministration of President Bongbong Marcos and will continue to push for projects aligned with the Pampanga Megalopolis program.[122] She initially aimed to regain the House speakership in the19th Congress, soon after Marcos was elected, but later rescinded after realizing that Marcos wanted his cousin and her Lakas partymate, Rep.Martin Romualdez (Leyte–1st), to become the next House Speaker.[124] She instead endorsed the speakership bid of Romualdez.[125]
On July 25, 2022, Arroyo was named as Senior Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives under the new speakership of Martin Romualdez in the 19th Congress.[126]
Her only daughter, Evangelina Lourdes Arroyo-Bernas, was made the country's ambassador toAustria in December 2022. She defended accusations of nepotism noting her daughter's qualifications.[135]
On May 17, 2023, she was demoted by the House leadership from senior deputy speaker to a regular deputy speaker to unburden her heavy workload that came with the title. She switched places with fellow Pampanga RepresentativeAurelio Gonzales Jr. of the3rd district.[136] Later on November 7, 2023, she was expelled by the House from her position as a deputy house speaker, after she failed to support a resolution that aimed to uphold the House's "dignity, integrity and independence" and to support the speakership of Martin Romualdez, as she was abroad when it was signed.[137] This followed the criticism from her political ally, former President Rodrigo Duterte, who objected the House's decision to reallocate the confidential funds originally for the offices of his daughter, Vice President and concurrent Education Secretary Sara Duterte. Arroyo was replaced by RepresentativeTonypet Albano (Isabela–1st).[138]
Arroyo ran unopposed for re-election as Pampanga's 2nd district representative in2025 and eventually won.[139]
Approval ratings
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In July 2008, theSocial Weather Stations (SWS) said that Arroyo registered a net satisfaction rating of minus 38 in a survey conducted in the last week of June, making her the most unpopular president in the country since democracy was restored in 1986.[140]
SWS Net satisfaction ratings of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo(March 2001–June 2010)[141][142]
^Crisostomo, Isabelo T. (2002).The power and the glory: Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and her presidency. Presidential Book Series. Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines: J. Kriz Pub. Enterprises. p. 20.ISBN978-971-93072-2-8.
^"Article 18: Transitory Provisions".The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. The Official Website of the Republic of the Philippines. Archived fromthe original on May 27, 2007. RetrievedJune 5, 2007.
^abMalaya, J. Eduardo; Malaya, Jonathan E. (2004)....So Help Us God: The Presidents of the Philippines and Their Inaugural Addresses. Pasig: Anvil Publishing. pp. 301–303.ISBN971-27-1487-X.
^Avendaño, Christine; Cueto, Donna S.; Ubac, Michael Lim; Bordadora, Norman; Herrera, Christine; Rivera, Blanche (January 21, 2001)."Erap out, Gloria in: New President vows leadership by example".Philippine Daily Inquirer. The Philippine Daily Inquirer, Inc. p. 1. RetrievedMarch 26, 2024.The new President, the country's 14th said she decided to take her oath even without Estrada's formal resignation after being informed by [Hilario] Davide [Jr.] that her succession was legal.
^Avendaño, Christine (January 24, 2001)."2 senators hit Lee comment on Edsa 2".Philippine Daily Inquirer. The Philippine Daily Inquirer, Inc. p. 2. RetrievedMarch 26, 2024.Santiago said Macapagal's succession climaxed by her oath-taking at the Edsa Shrine, was illegal under the present Constitution[...]
^Maragay, Dino (November 30, 2009)."GMA gunning for House seat".The Philippine Star.Archived from the original on September 15, 2024. RetrievedSeptember 15, 2024.
^"History".Waseda University. Archived fromthe original on October 27, 2021.2002: Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo becomes the third Philippines President to receive an honorary doctorate.
‡ — Under the transitory provisions of the Philippine constitution, 24 senators were elected in this election. The first 12 senators who garnered the highest votes would have a 6 six year term while the next 12 senators would have a 3 year term.
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