Aglobal city[a] is acity that serves as a primary node in theglobal economic network. The concept originates fromgeography andurban studies, based on the thesis thatglobalization has created a hierarchy of strategicgeographic locations with varying degrees of influence overfinance,trade, andculture worldwide.[1][2][3] The global city represents the most complex and significant hub within the international system, characterized by links binding it to other cities that have direct, tangible effects on globalsocioeconomic affairs.[4]
The criteria of a global city vary depending on the source.[5] Common features include a high degree ofurban development, a large population, the presence of majormultinational companies, a significant and globalizedfinancial sector, a well-developed and internationally linkedtransportation infrastructure, local or national economic dominance, high quality educational andresearch institutions, and a globally influential output of ideas, innovations, or cultural products. Quintessential examples, based on most indices and research, includeNew York City,London,Paris, andTokyo.
Origin and terminology
The term 'global city' was popularized bysociologistSaskia Sassen in her 1991 book,The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo.[6] Before then, other terms were used for urban centers with roughly the same features. The term 'world city', meaning a city heavily involved in global trade, appeared in a May 1886 description ofLiverpool, byThe Illustrated London News;[7] British sociologist andgeographerPatrick Geddes used the term in 1915.[8] The term 'megacity' entered common use in the late 19th or early 20th century, the earliest known example being a publication by theUniversity of Texas in 1904.[9] In the 21st century, the terms are usually focused on a city'sfinancial power andhigh technology infrastructure.[10][11]
Competing groups have devised competing means to classify and rank world cities and to distinguish them from other cities.[8] Although there is a consensus on the leading world cities,[13] the chosen criteria affect which other cities are included.[8] Selection criteria may be based on a yardstick value (e.g., if the producer-service sector is the largest sector then cityX is a world city)[8] or on an imminent determination (if the producer-service sector of cityX is greater than the combined producer-service sectors ofN other cities then cityX is a world city.)[8] Although criteria are variable and fluid, typical characteristics of world cities include:[14]
TheGlobalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) is a Britishthink tank that studies the relationships between world cities in the context ofglobalization. It is based in thegeography department ofLoughborough University inLeicestershire, United Kingdom. GaWC was founded byPeter J. Taylor in 1998.[20] Together with Jon Beaverstock andRichard G. Smith, they create the GaWC's biennial categorization of world cities into "Alpha", "Beta" and "Gamma" tiers. The three tiers are further divided into subgroupings using plus and minus signs. The categorization is based upon the author's views of "international connectedness", primarily shown through a regions advanced services firms, such as in accountancy, finance and law).[21] Primarily concerned with what it calls the "advanced producer services" of accountancy, advertising, banking/finance, and law, the cities in the top two classifications in the 2024 edition are:[22]
Advisory firmOxford Economics released its Global Cities Index in 2024, ranking the world's largest 1,000 cities based on 27 indicators across five categories (economics,human capital,quality of life, environment, andgovernance) with more weight on economic factors. The top ranked cities in 2024 are:[27]
A study byBrookings Institution conducted in 2016 introduced its own typology, sorting global cities into seven categories: Global Giants, Asian Anchors, Emerging Gateways, Factory China, Knowledge Capitals, American Middleweights, and International Middleweights.[28]
The Global Giants classification includes wealthy, extremely large metropolitan areas that are the largest cities in developed nations. They are hubs for financial markets and major corporations, and serve as key nodes in global flows of capital and of talent.
A study by ING Media, a London-basedbuilt environment communications firm, has ranked 250 global cities by total online mentions across social media and online news for 2019. It found that a fifth of digital mentions were for Tokyo, New York City, London, and Paris, identifying these as the world's super brands.[29][30] The Top 10 in the 2019 edition were:[31]
The Tokyo-based Institute for Urban Strategies at The Mori Memorial Foundation, issued a study of global cities in 2008. They are ranked in six categories: economy, research and development, cultural interaction,livability, environment, and accessibility, with 70 individual indicators among them. The top ten world cities are also ranked by subjective categories, including manager, researcher, artist, visitor and resident.[32][33] The top 10 cities in 2023 are:[32]
Consultancy firm Resonance publishes the World's Best Cities ranking. They are ranked in three categories: livability, lovability and prosperity, each of them using different factors. The top 10 cities in 2024 are:[34]
Estate agentKnight Frank LLP and theCiti Private Bank publishThe Wealth Report, which includes a "Global Cities Survey", evaluating the most important cities tohigh-net-worth individuals (HNWIs, having over $25 million of investable assets each). Criteria are economic activity,political power, knowledge and influence, and quality of life.[37][38] The most important cities to UHNWIs in 2022 are:[39]
^abcdeDoel, M., & Hubbard, P., (2002), "Taking World Cities Literally: Marketing the City in a Global Space of flows",City, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 351–368. Subscription required.
^"Struggling Giants". University of Minnesota Press.Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved31 December 2020.
^Abrahamson, Mark (2004).Global cities(PDF) (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4.ISBN978-0195142044.Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved9 January 2021.
^"The World's Most Talked About Cities".ING Media - Property PR | Architecture PR | Strategic communications for the BUILT ENVIRONMENT.Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved23 December 2019.
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