An illustrated headpiece from a mid-18th century collection of ghazals andrubāʻīyāt
Ghazal[a] is a form of amatory poem or ode,[1] originating inArabic poetry[2] that often deals with topics of spiritual and romantic love. It may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss, or separation from the beloved, and the beauty of love in spite of that pain.[2][3]
The ghazal form is ancient, tracing its origins to 7th-century Arabic poetry. It spread into theIndian subcontinent in the 12th century due to the influence ofSufi mystics and the courts of the newIslamic Sultanate, and is now most prominently a form of poetry of manylanguages of South Asia andTurkey.[4]
A poem of ghazal commonly consists of five to fifteen couplets, which are independent, but are linked – abstractly, in their theme; and more strictly in their poetic form. The structural requirements of ghazal are similar in stringency to those of thePetrarchan sonnet.[5] In style and content, due to its highly allusive nature, ghazal has proved capable of an extraordinary variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation.
The wordghazal originates from theArabic wordغزل (ġazal). This genre of Arabic poetry is derived fromغَزَل (ḡazal) orغَزِلَ (ḡazila) - To sweet-talk, to flirt, to display amorous gestures.[6]
The ghazal is a short poem consisting of rhyming couplets, calledbayt orsher. Most ghazals have between seven and twelvebayts. For a poem to be considered a true ghazal, it must have no fewer than five couplets. Almost all ghazals confine themselves to less than fifteen couplets (poems that exceed this length are more accurately considered asqasidas). Ghazal couplets end with the same rhyming pattern and are expected to have the same meter. The ghazal's uniqueness arises from its rhyme and refrain rules, referred to as the'qafiya' and'radif' respectively. A ghazal'srhyming pattern may be described as AA BA CA DA, and so on.[9]In its strictest form, a ghazal must follow a number of rules:
Matla': The firstsher in a ghazal is called the'matla''. Both lines of thematla' must contain theqafiya andradif. Thematla' sets the tone of the ghazal, as well as its rhyming and refrain pattern.
Radif: The refrain word or phrase. Both lines of thematla' and the second lines of all subsequentshers must end in the same refrain word called theradif.
Qafiya: The rhyming pattern. Theradif is immediately preceded by words or phrases with the same end rhyme pattern, called theqafiya.
Maqta': The last couplet of the ghazal is called themaqta'. It is common in ghazals for the poet'snom de plume, known astakhallus to be featured in themaqta'. Themaqta' is typically more personal than the other couplets in a ghazal. The creativity with which a poet incorporates homonymous meanings of theirtakhallus to offer additional layers of meaning to the couplet is an indicator of their skill.
Bahr: Each line of a ghazal must follow the same metrical pattern and syllabic (ormorae) count.
Other optional rules include:
Misra-e-uulaa: The first line of each verse must be a statement.
Misra-e-sani: The second line of each verse must be the proof of statement given in the first line.
Unlike in anazm, a ghazal's couplets do not need a common theme or continuity. Each sher is self-contained and independent from the others, containing the complete expression of an idea. However, theshers all contain a thematic or tonal connection to each other, which may be highly allusive.[9] A common conceit that traces its history to the origins of the ghazal form is that the poem is addressed to a beloved by the narrator.[10]Abdolhamid Ziaei considers the content of old Persian ghazal to include four elements: love, mysticism, education or excellence, and Qalandari.[11]
The Ghazal tradition is marked by the poetry's ambiguity and simultaneity of meaning.[12] Learning the common tropes is key to understanding the ghazal.
There are several locations an Urdusher might take place in:[13]
The Garden, where the poet often takes on the personage of thebulbul, asongbird. The poet is singing to the beloved, who is often embodied as arose.
The ghazal originated in Arabia in the 7th century,[14] evolving from theqasida, a much older pre-Islamic Arabic poetic form.[9]Qaṣīdas were typically much longer poems, with up to 100 couplets. Thematically,qaṣīdas did not include love, and were usuallypanegyrics for a tribe or ruler, lampoons, or moral maxims. However, theqaṣīda's opening prelude, called thenasīb, was typically nostalgic and/or romantic in theme, and highly ornamented and stylized in form. In time, thenasīb began to be written as standalone, shorter poems, which became the ghazal.[4]
The ghazal came into its own as a poetic genre during the Umayyad era (661–750) and continued to flower and develop in the early Abbasid era. The Arabic ghazal inherited the formal verse structure of theqaṣīda, specifically, a strict adherence to meter and the use of theqafiya, a common end rhyme on each couplet (called abayt in Arabic and asher in Persian).[4]
The nature of the ghazals also changed to meet the demands of musical presentation, becoming briefer in length. Lighter poetic meters, such askhafîf,ramal, andmuqtarab were preferred, instead of longer, more ponderous meters favored forqaṣīdas (such askâmil,basît, andrajaz). Topically, the ghazal focus also changed from nostalgic reminiscences of the homeland and loved ones, towardsromantic or erotic themes. These included sub-genres with themes of courtly love (udharî), eroticism (hissî), homoeroticism (mudhakkar), and as a highly stylized introduction to a larger poem (tamhîdî).[4][15]
During the Umayyad and early Abbasid eras, the ghazal blossomed. It inherited the structure of the qaṣīda, focusing on meter and end rhymes. With time, it adapted for musical presentation, becoming shorter. Lighter meters were preferred, and themes shifted towards romance and eroticism.
With the spread ofIslam, theArabian ghazal spread both westwards, intoAfrica andSpain, as well as eastwards, intoPersia. The popularity of ghazals in a particular region was usually preceded by a spread of theArabic language in that country. In medieval Spain, ghazals written inHebrew as well asArabic have been found as far back as the11th century. It is possible that ghazals were also written in theMozarabic language. Ghazals in the Arabic form have also been written in a number of major West African literary languages likeHausa andFulfulde.[4]
However, the most significant changes to the ghazal occurred in its introduction into Iran in the 10th century.[9] The early Persian ghazals largely imitated the themes and form of the Arabian ghazal. These "Arabo-Persian" ghazals introduced two differences compared to their Arabian poetic roots. Firstly, the Persian ghazals did not employ radical enjambment between the two halves of the couplet, and secondly, the Persian ghazals formalized the use of the common rhyme in both lines of the opening couplet (matla').[4] The imitation of Arabian forms in Persia extended to theqaṣīda, which was also popular in Persia.
Because of its comparative brevity, thematic variety and suggestive richness, the ghazal soon eclipsed theqaṣīda, and became the most popular poetry form in Persia.[9] Much like Arabian ghazals, early Persian ghazals typically employed more musical meters compared to other Persian poetry forms.[4]Rudaki (858–941 CE) is considered the most important Persian ghazal poet of this period, and the founder of classical Persian literature.
Early Persian ghazal poetry (12th to early 13th century)
The Persian ghazal evolved into its own distinctive form between the 12th and 13th centuries. Many of those innovations created what we now recognize as the archetypical ghazal form. These changes occurred in two periods, separated by the Mongol Invasion of Persia from 1219 to 1221 AD.
The 'Early Persian poetry' period spanned approximately one century, from theGhaznavid era (which lasted until 1187) till a little after the Mongol Invasion. Apart from the movement towards brevity, this period also saw two significant and lasting changes to the ghazal form.
The first change was the adoption of theTakhallus, the practice of mentioning the poet's penname in the final couplet (called the'maqta''). The adoption of thetakhallus became a gradually accepted part of the ghazal form, and by the time ofSaadi Shirazi (1210–1291 AD), the most important ghazal poet of this period, it had becomede rigueur.[4] The second marked change from Arabian ghazal form in Persian ghazals was a movement towards far greater autonomy between the couplets.
Late Persian poetry in the Early Mongol Period (1221–)
The ghazal later spread throughout the Middle East and South Asia. It was famous all around the Indian subcontinent in the 18th and 19th centuries[unreliable source?]
Amir Khusrow teaching his disciples in a miniature from a manuscript ofMajlis al-Ushshaq byHusayn Bayqarah. Amir Khusrow is considered the first Urdu poet
Vin bahs bā salāse-ye ghassāle miravad And with the three washers (cups of wine), this dispute goeth. Shekkar-shekan shavand hame tutiān-eHind Sugar-shattering (excited), have become all the parrots (poets) ofHind, Zin qand-e Pārsi ke be Bangāle miravad. That thisPersian candy [ode], that toBengal goeth.
The ghazal was spread fromPersia intoIndian subcontinent in the 12th century[unreliable source?] by the influence ofSufi mystics and the courts of the new Islamic sultanates[unreliable source?]. This period coincided with the early Islamic Sultanates in India, through the wave of Islamic invasions into the region in that period.
During the reign of theSultan of BengalGhiyasuddin Azam Shah, the city ofSonargaon became an important centre ofPersian literature, with many publications of prose and poetry. The period is described as the "golden age ofPersian literature in Bengal". Its stature is illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence with the Persian poetHafez. When the Sultan invited Hafez to complete an incomplete ghazal by the ruler, the renowned poet responded by acknowledging the grandeur of the king's court and the literary quality of Bengali-Persian poetry.[18]
A common theme is unconditional love for a higher being or for a mortal beloved which may lift the poet into the ranks of the wise or will bring satisfaction to the soul of the poet. Traditional ghazal law may or may not have an explicit element of sexual desire in it, and the love may be spiritual. The love may be directed to either a man or a woman.
The ghazal is always written from the point of view of the unrequited lover whose beloved is portrayed as unattainable. Most often, either the beloved has not returned the poet's love or returns it without sincerity or else the societal circumstances do not allow it. The lover is aware and resigned to this fate but continues loving nonetheless; the lyrical impetus of the poem derives from this tension. Representations of the lover's powerlessness to resist his feelings often include lyrically exaggerated violence. The beloved's power to captivate the speaker may be represented in extended metaphors about the "arrows of his eyes", or by referring to the beloved as an assassin or a killer. Take, for example, the following couplets fromAmir Khusro's Persian ghazalNemidanam che manzel būd shab:
namidanam chi manzil būd shab jayi ke man būdam; be har sū raqs eh besmel būd shab jayi ke man būdam. pari paikar negar eh sarv qaad e lalhaa rokhsar; sarapa afat-e del būd shab jayi ke man būdam.
Translation:
I wonder what was the place where I was last night, All around me were half-slaughtered victims of love, tossing about in agony. There was a nymph-like beloved with cypress-like form and tulip-like face, Ruthlessly playing havoc with the hearts of the lovers.
Many of the major historical ghazal poets were either avowed Sufis themselves (likeRumi orHafiz), or were sympathizers with Sufi ideas.[citation needed] Somewhat likeAmericansoul music, but withmelancholy instead offunk, most ghazals can be viewed in aspiritual context, with the Beloved being ametaphor forGod or the poet's spiritual master. It is the intense Divine Love of Sufism that serves as a model for all the forms of love found in ghazal poetry.[citation needed]
Most ghazal scholars today recognize that some ghazal couplets are exclusively aboutDivine Love (ishq-e-haqiqi). Others are aboutearthly love (ishq-e-majazi), but many can be interpreted in either context.
Traditionally invoking melancholy, love, longing, andmetaphysical questions, ghazals are often sung by Afghan, Pakistani, and Indian musicians. The form has roots in seventh-century Arabia[unreliable source?],[citation needed] and gained prominence in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, thanks to such Persian poets as Rumi and Hafiz, and later to Indian poets such asMirza Ghalib. In the eighteenth century, the ghazal was used by poets writing in Urdu. Among these poets,Ghalib is the recognized master[unreliable source?].
Enormous collections of ghazal have been created by hundreds of well-known poets over the past thousand years in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu as well as in the Central Asian Turkic languages. Ghazal poems are performed in Uzbek-TajikShashmakom, TurkishMakam, PersianDastgah and UyghurMuqam. There are many published translations from Persian and Turkish byAnnemarie Schimmel,Arthur John Arberry and many others.
Ghazal "Gayaki", the art of singing or performing the ghazal in the Indian classical tradition, is very old. Singers like Ustad Barkat Ali and many other singers in the past used to practice it, but the lack of historical records make many names anonymous. It was withBegum Akhtar and later on UstadMehdi Hassan that classical rendering of ghazals became popular in the masses. The categorization of ghazal singing as a form of "light classical" music is a misconception.[why?]
The ghazal has historically been one of the most popular poetic forms across the Middle East and South Asia. Even into the modern era the ghazal has retained its extreme popularity among South Asian royalty and nobility, among whom its education and patronisation has traditionally found shelter, especially with several Indian rulers including severalIndian Emperors being profound composers of ghazals.[26] In the 19th century ghazals gained popularity inGermany withGoethe's translations, as well as with Spanish ghazal writers such asFederico García Lorca. Despite often being written in strong Urdu and rendered with classical Indian Ragas along with complex terminology most usually accessible to the upper classes, in South Asia ghazals are nonetheless popular among all ages.[27] They are most popular in Turkey and South Asia, and readings or musical renditions of ghazals—such as atmehfils andmushairas—are well attended in these countries, even by the laity. Ghazals are popular inSouth Asian film music. The ragas to which ghazals are sung are usually chosen to be in consonance with their lyrical content.
The ghazal's beauty goes beyond rich or poor, or where you come from. Whether it's spoken in fancy places or sung in everyday life, its powerful words touch deep inside, staying with us for a long time.
Understanding the complex lyrics of traditional ghazals required education typically available only to the upper classes. The traditional classicalrāgas in which the lyrics were rendered were also difficult to understand. The ghazal has undergone some simplification in recent years, in terms of words and phrasings, which helps it to reach a larger audience around the world. Modernshayars (poets) are also moving towards a less strict adherence to form and rules, using simpler language and words (sometimes even incorporating words from other languages, such as English - seeParveen Shakir), and moving away from a strictly male narrator.
Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited tokhayāl,thumri,rāga,tāla and other classical and light classical genres. However, those forms of the ghazal are looked down on by purists of the Indian classical tradition.
Renowned ghazal singer, and pioneer of Telugu ghazals,Ghazal Srinivas popularized the ghazal inTelugu.[28] Ghazals in theKannada language were pioneered in the 1960s by poet Shantarasam, though recordings of their poetry only began to be made in the early 2000s.[29] Legendary musicianUmbayee composed ghazals inMalayalam and popularized this form of music acrossKerala.[30]
Suresh Bhat popularized ghazals in theMarathi language. Some of his amazing ghazals were sung by famous artists likeLata Mangeshkar andAsha Bhosale. He was known asGhazal Samrat (theEmperor of ghazals) for his exposition of the ghazal form of poetry and its adaptation to theMarathi language. His discipleIlahi Jamadar continued the tradition, blending Urdu and Marathi verses in his work.
After nearly a century of "false starts," the early experiments ofJames Clarence Mangan,James Elroy Flecker,Adrienne Rich,Phyllis Webb, etc., many of whom did not adhere wholly or in part to the traditional principles of the form, experiments dubbed as "the bastard Ghazal,"[32] the ghazal finally began to be recognized as a viable closed form in poetry of theEnglish language some time in the early to mid-1990s. It came about largely as a result of serious, true-to-form examples being published by noted American poetsJohn Hollander,W. S. Merwin andElise Paschen as well as by Kashmiri-American poetAgha Shahid Ali, who had been teaching and spreading word of the Ghazal at American universities over the previous two decades.Jim Harrison created his own free-form Ghazal true to his poetic vision inOutlyer and Ghazals (1971).[33]
In 1996, Ali compiled and edited the world's first anthology of English-language ghazals, published byWesleyan University Press in 2000, asRavishing DisUnities: Real Ghazals in English. (Fewer than one in ten of the ghazals collected inReal Ghazals in English observe the constraints of the form.)
A ghazal is composed of couplets, five or more. The couplets may have nothing to do with one another except for the formal unity derived from a strict rhyme and rhythm pattern.
A ghazal in English observes the traditional restrictions of the form:
Where are you now? Who lies beneath your spell tonight? Whom else from rapture's road will you expel tonight?
Those "Fabrics of Cashmere—" "to make Me beautiful—" "Trinket"— to gem– "Me to adorn– How– tell"— tonight?
I beg for haven: Prisons, let open your gates– A refugee from Belief seeks a cell tonight.
God's vintage loneliness has turned to vinegar– All the archangels– their wings frozen– fell tonight.
Lord, cried out the idols, Don't let us be broken Only we can convert the infidel tonight.
Mughal ceilings, let your mirrored convexities multiply me at once under your spell tonight.
He's freed some fire from ice in pity for Heaven. He's left open– for God– the doors of Hell tonight.
In the heart's veined temple, all statues have been smashed No priest in saffron's left to toll its knell tonight.
God, limit these punishments, there's still Judgment Day– I'm a mere sinner, I'm no infidel tonight.
Executioners near the woman at the window. Damn you, Elijah, I'll bless Jezebel tonight.
The hunt is over, and I hear the Call to Prayer fade into that of the wounded gazelle tonight.
My rivals for your love– you've invited them all? This is mere insult, this is no farewell tonight.
And I, Shahid, only am escaped to tell thee– God sobs in my arms.Call me Ishmael tonight.
Ghazals have been used in music throughout South Asia and has become a genre of its own, simply called "Ghazal" which refers to the music genre. The Ghazal music genre is most popular in Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.[36]
Some notable Afghan ghazal singers are (Persian/Pashtu):
^Dayf, Shawqî.Târîkh al-Adab al-Islâmî: 2 – al-`Asr al-Islâmî (A History of Arab Literature: 2- The Islamic Era). Cairo: Dâr al-Ma`ârif. 1963. (pp. 347–348)
^"Persian - Banglapedia". En.banglapedia.org. 15 February 2015.Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved22 September 2017.
^Ali, Sarwat (21 September 2014)."A taste of Bengal".The News International. The News on Sunday. Archived fromthe original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved28 June 2018.Firoza Begum too sang these Bengali ghazals of Nazrul Islam
^Islam, Mohammad Shafiqul (25 May 2007)."Nazrul: An ardent lover of humanity".The Daily Star.Archived from the original on 4 February 2018. Retrieved28 June 2018.He is best known for his songs, in which he pioneered new forms such as Bengali ghazals
