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TheGetae orGetai (/ˈɡɛtiː/ or/ˈdʒiːtiː/,[1] singularGetan) were a large nation who inhabited the regions to either side of the LowerDanube in what is today northernBulgaria and southernRomania, throughout much ofClassical Antiquity. Historians' main source of information about the Getae are Greek and Roman writers, at least some of whom believed that the Getae were closely related to the neighbouringThracians to the south, andDacians to the north. Modern scholars continue to debate the details of these relationships, including the question of whether these three peoples spoke the same language.
The Getae first appear in historical records as fierce opponents of thePersian invasion in 513 BC, as described by the early Greek historianHerodotus. They faded out of historical records during theRoman empire, when many appear to have become Romans while others north of the Danube were gradually overwhelmed by other peoples moving from the north and east towards the Roman frontier.
The ethnonymGetae was first used byHerodotus. The root was also used for theTyragetae,Thyssagetae,Massagetae, and others.
Strabo stated in hisGeographica (c. 7 BC – 20 AD) that the Dacians lived in the western parts ofDacia, "towardsGermania and the sources of the Danube", while the Getae lived in the eastern parts, towards theBlack Sea, both south and north of the Danube.[2] He also wrote that the Dacians and Getae spoke the same language,[3] after stating the same about Getae and Thracians.[4]
Strabo's account of the lands inhabited by the Getae:
Pliny the Elder, in hisNaturalis Historia (Natural History), c. 77–79 AD: "... though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot theGetae, by the Romans calledDaci".[5]
Appian, who began writing hisRoman History underAntoninus Pius, Roman Emperor from 138 to 161, noted: "[B]ut going beyond these rivers in places they rule some of theCelts over theRhine and the Getae over theDanube, whom they call Dacians".[6][7]
Justin, the 3rd century AD Latin historian, wrote in hisEpitome of Pompeius Trogus that Dacians are spoken of as descendants of the Getae:"Daci quoque suboles Getarum sunt" (The Dacians as well are ascion of the Getae).[8][9]
In hisRoman History (c. 200 AD),Cassius Dio added: "I call the people Dacians, the name used by the natives themselves as well as by theRomans, though I am not ignorant that some Greek writers refer to them asGetae, whether that is the right term or not...".[10][11] He also said the Dacians lived on both sides of the LowerDanube; the ones south of the river (today's northernBulgaria), inMoesia, were calledMoesians, while the ones north of the river were called Dacians. He argued that the Dacians are "Getae orThracians of Dacian race":[12]
In ancient times, it is true, Moesians and Getae occupied all the land betweenHaemus and the Ister; but as time went on some of them changed their names, and since then there have been included under the name of Moesia all the tribes living aboveDalmatia,Macedonia, andThrace, and separated fromPannonia by theSavus, a tributary of theIster. Two of the many tribes found among them are those formerly called theTriballi, and theDardani, who still retain their old name.[13]
There is a dispute among scholars about the relations between the Getae andDacians, and this dispute also covers the interpretation of ancient sources. Some historians such asRonald Arthur Crossland state that even Ancient Greeks used the two designations "interchangeable or with some confusion". Thus, it is generally considered that the two groups were related to a certain degree;[14] the exact relation is a matter of controversy.
Strabo, as well as other ancient sources, led some modern historians to consider that, if the Thracian ethnic group should be divided, one of this divisions should be the "Daco-Getae".[15] ThelinguistIvan Duridanov also identified a "Dacian linguistic area"[16] inDacia,Scythia Minor,Lower Moesia, andUpper Moesia.
Romanian scholars generally went further with the identification, historianConstantin C. Giurescu claiming the two were identical.[17] ThearchaeologistMircea Babeș spoke of a "veritable ethno-cultural unity" between the Getae and the Dacians.[citation needed] According toGlanville Price, the account of the Greek geographerStrabo shows that the Getae and the Dacians were one and the same people.[18]Others who support the identity between Getae and Dacians with ancient sources include freelance writerJames Minahan andCatherine B Avery, who claim the people whom the Greek calledGetae were calledDaci by the Romans.[19][20] This same belief is stated by some British historians such asDavid Sandler Berkowitz andPhilip Matyszak.[21][22] The Bulgarian historian and thracologistAlexander Fol considers that the Getae became known as "Dacians" in Greek and Latin in the writings ofCaesar, Strabo andPliny the Elder, as Roman observers adopted the name of theDacian tribe to refer to all the unconquered inhabitants north of theDanube.[23] Also,Edward Bunbury believed the name of Getae, by which they were originally known to the Greeks on theEuxine, was always retained by the latter in common usage: while that of Dacians, whatever be its origin, was that by which the more western tribes, adjoining thePannonians, first became known to the Romans.[24] Some scholars consider the Getae and Dacians to be the same people at different stages of their history and discuss their culture asGeto-Dacian.[25]
Historian and archaeologistAlexandru Vulpe found a remarkable uniformity of the Geto-Dacian culture;[26] however, he is one of the few Romanian archaeologists to make a clear distinction between the Getae and Dacians, arguing against the traditional position of the Romanian historiography that considered the two people the same.[27] Nevertheless, he chose to use the term "Geto-Dacians" as a conventional concept for the Thracian tribes inhabiting the future territory of Romania, not necessarily meaning an "absolute ethnic, linguistic or historical unity".[27]
Crossland suggested the two designations may refer to two groups of a "linguistically homogeneous people" that had come to historical prominence at two distinct periods of time. He also compared the probable linguistic situation with the relation between modernNorwegian andDanish languages.[28]Paul Lachlan MacKendrick considered the two as "branches" of the same tribe, speaking two dialects of a common language.[29]
The Romanianhistorian of ideas andhistoriographerLucian Boia stated: "At a certain point, the phrase Geto-Dacian was coined in the Romanian historiography to suggest a unity of Getae and Dacians".[30] Lucian Boia took a sceptical position, arguing the ancient writers distinguished among the two people, treating them as two distinct groups of the Thracian ethnos.[30][31] Boia contended that it would be naive to assume Strabo knew theThracian dialects so well,[30] alleging that Strabo had "no competence in the field of Thracian dialects".[31] The latter claim is contested, some studies attesting Strabo's reliability and sources.[32] There is no reason to disregard Strabo's belief that the Daci and the Getae spoke the same language.[18] Boia also stressed that some Romanian authors cited Strabo indiscriminately.[31]
A similar position was adopted by Romanian historian and archaeologistG. A. Niculescu, who also criticized the Romanian historiography and the archaeological interpretation, particularly on the "Geto-Dacian" culture.[33] In his opinion, Alexandru Vulpe saw ancient people as modern nations, leading the latter to interpret the common language as a sign of a common people, despite Strabo making a distinction between the two.[27]
From the 7th century BC onwards, the Getae came into economic and cultural contact with theGreeks, who were establishingcolonies on the western side of Pontus Euxinus, nowadays the Black Sea. The Getae are mentioned for the first time together inHerodotus in his narrative of theScythian campaign ofDarius I in 513 BC, during which the latter conquered the Getae.[34] According to Herodotus, the Getae differed from other Thracian tribes in their religion, centered around the god (daimon)Zalmoxis whom some of the Getae calledGebeleizis.[35]
But the Getans, who are the bravest of the Thracians, and most sensitive to the demands of justice as well, became obstinate, and were promptly enslaved.
— Herodotus.the Histories, 4.93. trans. Tom Holland
Between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC, the Getae were mostly under the rule of the flourishingOdrysian kingdom. During this time, the Getae provided military services and became famous for their cavalry. After the disintegration of the Odrysian kingdom, smaller Getic principalities began to consolidate themselves.
Before setting out on hisPersian expedition,Alexander the Great defeated the Getae and razed one of their settlements.[36] In 313 BC, the Getae formed an alliance withCallatis,Odessos, and other western Pontic Greek colonies againstLysimachus, who held a fortress at Tirizis (modernKaliakra).[37]
The Getae flourished especially in the first half of the 3rd century BC. By about 200 BC, the authority of the Getic prince,Zalmodegicus, stretched as far asHistria, as a contemporary inscription shows.[38] Other strong princes includedZoltes andRhemaxos (about 180 BC). Also, several Getic rulers minted their own coins. The ancient authorsStrabo[39] andCassius Dio[40] say that Getae practicedruler cult, and this is confirmed by archaeological remains.
In 72–71 BCMarcus Terentius Varro Lucullus became the firstRoman commander to march against the Getae. This was done to strike at the western Pontic allies ofMithridates VI, but he had limited success. A decade later, a coalition ofScythians, Getae,Bastarnae and Greek colonists defeated C. Antonius Hybrida atHistria.[41][42] This victory over the Romans allowedBurebista, the leader of this coalition, to dominate the region for a short period (60–50 BC).
In the mid-first century BCBurebista organized akingdom consisting of descendants of those whom the Greeks had calledGetae, as well asDacians, orDaci, the name applied to people of the region by the Romans.[25]
Augustus aimed at subjugating the entireBalkan peninsula, and used an incursion of the Bastarnae across the Danube as a pretext to devastate the Getae and Thracians. He putMarcus Licinius Crassus in charge of the plan. In 29 BC, Crassus defeated the Bastarnae with the help of the Getic princeRholes.[43] Crassus promised him help for his support against the Getic rulerDapyx.[44] After Crassus had reached as far theDanube Delta, Rholes was appointed king and returned to Rome. In 16 BC, theSarmatae invaded the Getic territory and were driven back by Roman troops.[45] The Getae were placed under the control of the Roman vassal king in Thrace,Rhoemetalces I. In 6 AD, the province ofMoesia was founded, incorporating the Getae south of theDanube River. The Getae north of the Danube continued tribal autonomy outside the Roman Empire.
According toHerodotus, the Getae were "the noblest as well as the mostjust of all the Thracian tribes".[46][47] When thePersians, led byDarius the Great, campaigned against theScythians, the Thracian tribes in theBalkanssurrendered to Darius on his way toScythia, and only the Getae offered resistance.[48]
One episode from the history of the Getae is attested by several ancient writers.[49][50]
WhenLysimachus tried to subdue the Getae he was defeated by them. The Getae king,Dromichaetes, took him prisoner but he treated him well and convinced Lysimachus there is more to gain as an ally than as an enemy of the Getae and released him. According to Diodorus, Dromichaetes entertained Lysimachus at his palace at Helis, where food was served on gold and silver plates. The discovery of the celebrated tomb atSveshtari (1982) suggests that Helis was located perhaps in its vicinity,[51] where remains of a large antique city are found along with dozens of other Thracian mound tombs.
As stated earlier, just like the Dacians, the principal god of the Getae wasZalmoxis whom they sometimes calledGebeleizis.
These same Thracians, whenever there is thunder or lightning, fire arrows up into the sky, and shake their fists at Zeus, in the belief that there is no god save their own.
— Herodotus.the Histories, 4.94. trans. Tom Holland
Pliny the Elder in hisNaturalis Historia mentions a tribe called theTyragetae,[52] apparently a Daco-Thracian tribe who dwelt by the river Tyras (theDniester). Theirtribal name appears to be a combination ofTyras andGetae; see also the namesThyssagetae andMassagetae.
TheRoman poetOvid, during his long exile inTomis, is asserted to have written poetry (now lost) in theGetic language. In hisEpistulae ex Ponto, written from the northern coast of the Black Sea, he asserts that two major, distinct languages were spoken by the sundry tribes of Scythia, which he referred to as Getic, and Sarmatian.
Jerome (Letter CVII to Laeta. II) described the Getae as red and yellow-haired, though he may be referring to the Goths, with whom the Getae were sometimes confused in Late Antiquity.[53]
The Getae are sometimes confused with theGoths in works of early medieval authors.[54][55][56][57][58] This confusion is notably expanded on in works ofJordanes, himself of Gothic background, who transferred earlier historical narratives about the Getae to the Goths.[59] At the close of the 4th century AD,Claudian, court poet to the emperorHonorius and thepatricianStilicho, uses the ethnonymGetae to refer to theVisigoths.
During 5th and 6th centuries, several historians and ethnographers (Marcellinus Comes,Orosius,John Lydus,Isidore of Seville,Procopius of Caesarea) used the same ethnonymGetae to name populations invading theEastern Roman Empire (Goths,Gepids,Kutrigurs,Slavs). For instance, in the third book of theHistory of the WarsProcopius details: "There were many Gothic nations in earlier times, just as also at the present, but the greatest and most important of all are the Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, and Gepaedes. In ancient times, however, they were named Sauromatae and Melanchlaeni; and there were some too who called these nations Getic."[60] The Getae were considered the same people as the Goths byJordanes in hisGetica written at the middle of the 6th century. He also claims that at one point the "Getae" migrated out ofScandza, while identifying their deityZalmoxis as a Gothic king. Jordanes assumed the earlier testimony of Orosius. The 9th-century workDe Universo ofRabanus Maurus states, "The Massagetae are in origin from the tribe of the Scythians, and are called Massagetae, as if heavy, that is, strong Getae.[61]
There have long been attempts to link the Getae andMassagetae to theJats of South Asia. Likewise, the Dacians have been linked to theDahae of Central Asia (and the Dahae to theDasas of South Asia).W. W. Hunter claimed in 1886, suggested that the Jats were anIranian people – most likelyScythian/Saka in origin,[62]Alexander Cunningham (1888) believed that references in classical European sources – likeStrabo,Ptolemy andPliny – to peoples such as theZaths, may have been the Getae and/or Jats.[63][64] More recent authors, likeTadeusz Sulimirski,[65]Weer Rajendra Rishi,[66] and Chandra Chakraberty,[67][68] have also linked the Getae and Jats.
Less credible, however, are parallel claims by Alexander Cunningham that theXanthii (orZanthi) andIatioi – mentioned by Strabo, Ptolemy and Pliny – may have been synonymous with the Getae and/or Jats.[63] TheXanthii were later established to be a subgroup (tribe or clan) of the Dahae. Subsequent scholars, such asEdwin Pulleyblank,Josef Markwart (also known as Joseph Marquart) andLászló Torday, suggest thatIatioi may be another name for a people known in classical Chinese sources as theYuezhi and in South Asian contexts as theKuṣānas (or Kushans).[64]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) "They (Dacians and Getae) are two names for the same people [...] divided in a large number of tribes". See also the hypothesis of aDaco-Moesian language / dialectal area supported by linguists like Vladimir Georgiev, Ivan Duridanov and Sorin Olteanu.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[page needed]The Massagetae are in origin from the tribe of the Scythians, and are called Massagetae, as if heavy, that is, strong Getae.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)The evidence of both the ancient authors and the archaeological remains point to a massive migration of Sacian (Sakas)/Massagetan ("great" Jat) tribes from the Syr Daria Delta (Central Asia) by the middle of the second century B.C. Some of the Syr Darian tribes; they also invaded North India.
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