| Georgian–Seljuk wars | |||||||||
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 A miniature depicting a battle with the Georgian kingDavid IV the Builder.LeRoman de Troie byBenoît de Sainte-Maure. King David is shown in purple robe on the right, wearing crown-helmet. | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Bagrat IV George II David IV George of Chqondidi Barami Sumbat Orbeli [ka] Ivane I Orbeli [ka] Demetrius I George III Ivane II Orbeli Sargis Zakarian Tamar Qubasar [ka] David Soslan Zakare II Zakarian Ivane I Zakarian Shalva Akhaltsikheli George IV Durgulel the Great | Alp Arslan Malik-Shah I Nizam al-Mulk Sarang ofGanja Muhammad I Tapar Mahmud II Ahmad Sanjar Mesud I Kilij Arslan II Kaykhusraw I Suleiman II of Rûm Eldiguz | ||||||||
TheGeorgian–Seljuk wars (Georgian:საქართველო-სელჩუკთა ომები,romanized:sakartvelo-selchuk'ta omebi), also known asGeorgian Crusade,[1] is a long series of battles and military clashes that took place from 1064 until 1213, between theKingdom of Georgia and the differentSeljukid states that occupied most ofSouth Caucasus. The conflict is preceded by deadly raids in the Caucasus by the Turks in the 11th century, known in Georgianhistoriography as theGreat Turkish Invasion.
In 1048–9, theSeljuk Turks underIbrahim Yinal made their first incursion inByzantine frontier region ofIberia. The emperorConstantine IX requested help from the GeorgiandukeLiparit IV of Kldekari, whom the Byzantines had aided in hisstruggle against the Georgian kingBagrat IV. Liparit, who had been fighting on the Byzantine side, was captured at theBattle of Kapetron. Bagrat took advantage of this, and acquired his possessions.
Although the Byzantine Empire and Georgia had centuries-long cultural and religious ties, and the Seljuqs posed a substantial threat to the empire itself, Constantinople's aggressiveness on the Caucasian political scene contributed to an atmosphere of distrust and recrimination, and prevented the two Christian nations from effective cooperation against the common threat. With assertion of the GeorgianBagratidhegemony in the Caucasus being the cornerstone of Bagrat's reign, his policy can be understood as the attempt to play the Seljuqs and Byzantines off against one another.[2]
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The second half of the 11th century was marked by the strategically significant invasion of the Seljuq Turks, who by the end of the 1040s had succeeded in building a vast empire including most ofCentral Asia andPersia. These intruders were part of the same wave of the Turkish movement which inflicted a crushing defeat on theByzantine army atManzikert in 1071.[5]
TheSeljuks first appeared in Georgia in 1064, when SultanAlp Arslan led an army fromRay toNakhchivan and captured some castles garrisoned byByzantine troops. He then handed over the command to his sonMalik-Shah andNizam al-Mulk, they marched westward and captured theArmenian fortified city ofMarmashen. Then the Seljuks marched north and captured the Georgian fortified city ofAkhalkalaki, which they set on fire. Faced with the growing threat from the east, Georgia and Byzantine overcame their decades-old enmity and entered a matrimonial alliance.[6]
In 1068, Alp Arslan accompanied by his vassals,Aghsartan I of Kakheti and king ofLori as well as theemir of Tbilisi marched against Bagrat again, who had to vacateKakheti and retreat toKartli. The provinces of Kartli andArgveti were occupied and pillaged. The retreated king was saved when severe snowfalls set in and Alp Arslan left Kartli. As the Sultan passedTbilisi, he gave the small emirate toFadl ibn Shavur. Fadl encamped at Isani and with 33,000 men ravaged the countryside. As soon as Alp Arslan left Georgia, Bagrat quickly recovered Kartli and crushed emir fadl who was managed to flee with a few followers only to fall into the hands of Aghsartan. At the price of conceding several fortresses on theIori River, Bagrat ransomed Fadl and received from him the surrender of Tbilisi where he reinstated a local emir on the terms of vassalage.[7][8]
The Seljuk threat prompted the Georgian and Byzantine governments to seek a closer cooperation. To secure the alliance, Bagrat's daughterMaria married, at some point between 1066 and 1071, to the Byzantine co-emperorMichael VII Ducas. The choice of a Georgian princess was unprecedented, and it was seen in Georgia as a diplomatic success on Bagrat's side.[9]
Although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion, the Byzantine withdrawal fromAnatolia brought them in more direct contact with the Seljuqs. In the 1070s, Georgia was twice attacked by the SultanMalik Shah I, but the Georgian King George IIwas still able to fight back at times.[10] In 1076 Malik Shah surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins, from 1079/80 onward, George was pressured into submitting to Malik-Shah to ensure a precious degree of peace at the price of an annualtribute. George's acceptance of the Seljuq suzerainty did not bring a real peace for Georgia. The Turks continued their seasonal movement into the Georgian territory to make use of the rich herbage of theKura valley and the Seljuq garrisons occupied the key fortresses in Georgia's south.[11] These inroads and settlements had a ruinous effect on Georgia's economic and political order. Cultivated lands were turned into pastures for the nomads and peasant farmers were compelled to seek safety in the mountains.[5]
George II was able to garner the Seljuk military support in his campaign aimed at bringing the eastern Georgian kingdom ofKakheti, which had long resisted the Bagratid attempts of annexation. However, tired with a protracted siege of the Kakhetian stronghold ofVezhini, George abandoned the campaign when snow fell. The Seljuk auxiliaries also lifted the siege and plundered the fertile Iori Valley in Kakheti.Aghsartan I, king of Kakheti, went to the sultan to declare his submission, and in token of loyalty embracedIslam, thus winning a Seljuk protection against the aspirations of the Georgian crown.[12]
George II's wavering character and incompetent political decisions coupled with the Seljuk yoke brought the Kingdom of Georgia into a profound crisis which climaxed in the aftermath of adisastrous earthquake that struck Georgia in 1088.
In 1110 theGeorgians led byGeorge Chqondideli, his nephew Theodore,Abuleti and IvaneOrbelian, retaliated against theSeljuk settlement and recaptured the town ofSamshvilde, which was added to the royal domains, without a major battle.[13] Following this capture, the Seljuks left a large part of their captured territories, allowing Georgian troops to captureDzerna [ka].[14]
Responding to this double defeat, SultanMuhammad I Tapar in 1110, sent a large army with the aim of invadingGeorgia. Knowing of the approach of Turkish troops, David IV left his home at Nacharmagevi with a personal guard of only 1,500 men and set out to meet the invaders during the night.[15] The two armies, clearly unequal, clashed the next day at theBattle of Trialeti in a hard fight which ended in a decisive victory for Georgia.[16][14][15]
The Battle of Trialeti deprived theSeljuk Empire of the opportunity to conduct a major military campaign againstGeorgia. In 1110–1114, David IV did not conduct active military operations either. In 1115,Roger of Salerno defeated theAtabag ofMosul at theBattle of Sarmin. After that, David became active again and in 1115-1118 he capturedRustavi,[14][13]Lori,[14] andAgarani[17] and also defeated the Seljuks at theBattle of Rakhsi.[18]
Problems began to crop up for David now. His population, having been at war for the better part of twenty years, needed to be allowed to become productive again. Also, his nobles were still making problems for him, along with the city ofTbilisi which still could not be liberated fromSeljuk grasp. Again David was forced to solve these problems before he could continue the reclamation of his nation and people. For this purpose, David IV radically reformed his military. He resettled aKipchak tribe of 40,000 families from theNorthern Caucasus in Georgia in 1118–1120.[19] Every Georgian and Kipchak family was obliged to provide one soldier with a horse and weapons. Kipchaks were settled in different regions of Georgia. Some were settled inInner Kartli province, others were given lands along the border. They wereChristianized and quickly assimilated intoGeorgian society.
In February 1116 by the order of David IV, the army ofKartli andMeskhetians were gathered atKlarjeti, David IV suddenly attacked and destroyed the Turks inTao and capturedTao-Klarjeti and the numerous riches left by the Turks.[20][21] In February 1120, David IV defeated the Seljuks at theBattle of Botora. In the battle theGeorgians captured many opponents and gained a lot of booty.[22]
In November 1120, David's army attacked and defeated the Seljuks inArsharunik and Sevgelamej, And in 1121 he did the same in Khunan. In June 1121, David with theKipchaks raided the camped Seljuks inBarda. In all these episodes the camp was destroyed meaning that the Georgian army managed to secretly approach it and perform a surprise attack.[22]
In 1121,Sultan Mahmud b. Muhammad (1118–1131) declared aholy war on Georgia and rallied a large coalition of Muslim states led by theArtuqidIlghazi andToğrul b. Muhammad. The size of the Muslim army is still a matter of debate with numbers ranging from a fantastic 600,000 men (Walter the Chancellor's Bella Antiochena,Matthew of Edessa) to 400,000 (Smbat Sparapet's Chronicle) to modern Georgian estimates of 250,000–400,000 men. All sources agree that the Muslim powers gathered an army that was much larger than the Georgian force of 56,000 men. However, on 12 August 1121, King David routed the enemy army on the field ofDidgori, achieving what is often considered the greatest military success in Georgian history. The victory at Didgori signaled the emergence of Georgia as a great military power and shifted the regional balance in favor of Georgian cultural and political supremacy. Following his success, Davidcaptured Tbilisi,[23] the last Muslim enclave remaining from the Seljuk occupation, in 1122 and moved the Georgian capital there and inauguratedGeorgia's Golden Age.[24]
Ani'sArmenians appealed to King David IV tocapture Ani,[25][26] taking this opportunity in hand, David IV summoned all his armies and enteredArmenia with 60,000 men to take the city. Without a single fight, the Armenian population of Ani opened the gates to theGeorgians,[27] who captured emirAbu'l-Aswar Shavur ibn Manuchihr and exiled him and his family toAbkhazia. The region was then left to the governance of theMeskhetian nobility, to GeneralAbuleti and his son Ivane.[28] NorthernArmenia was thus annexed and incorporated into theKingdom of Georgia, increasing the power of David IV in the region.[29]
Therecapture of Tbilisi in 1122 byDavid IV thus established theKingdom of Georgia as the supreme protector ofChristianity in theCaucasus, and the Georgians now attempted to assert their domination by trying to reduce the Muslim presence in the region, which was considered an ally of theSeljuk Empire. This was the case inShirvan, whose sovereign, who had already been defeated several times by Georgian troops, remained too independent of Georgian power and was forcibly replaced by David IV's sons-in-law,Manuchihr III, in 1120. The Seljuks, alarmed by the situation in Caucasus, decided to respond militarily.
SultanMahmud II soon resumed the war against Georgia, despite his defeat at theBattle of Didgori a year earlier. In November 1122, he began his invasion of Shirvan and capturedTabriz, before reaching the local capital,Shamakhi, the following spring.[30] Mahmud then captured the Shirvanshah Manuchihr III and sent a letter to David IV saying: "You are the king of the forests, and you never go down to the plains. Now I have captured the Shirvanshah and I demandKharaj [tribute] from him. If you wish, send me suitable gifts; if not, come and see me in all haste".[31][32] Following this provocation, David IV called in all his troops and assembled an army of 50,000 men, most of themKipchaks. The Seljuk sultan locked himself in Shamakhi after learning of the arrival of the Georgian troops, prompting David IV to halt his advance, deeming it disrespectful to pursue a retreating army. Mahmud II then offered David IV the opportunity to regain control of his vassal province if he let him leave in peace, but the Georgian king categorically refused and resumed his march towards the Shirvan capital after defeating an army of 4,000 Turks led by theatabeg ofArran,Aqsunqur Ahmadili, which was on its way to help Mahmud II. Once he had laid siege to Shamakhi, the Seljuk left the city in a hurry via the commune's excrement drainage system.[33][27] In June 1123, a month after the Seljuk defeat, David IV invaded Shirvan, starting by capturing the town ofGulistan.[33]
Another military campaign was organized in September 1124 inShirvan, under obscure circumstances. David IV managed to recoverShamakhi and took the citadel of Bigrit, before strengthening his power inHereti andKakheti by leaving strong garrisons of soldiers there.[34] David IV completely freed Shirvan from the Seljuks and annexed the western Shirvan, handing its government over toMtsignobartukhutsesi Simon. David IV left the eastern Shirvan to his son-in-law, Manuchihr III as a Georgian protectorate.[35]
David IV's battles were of great importance both for Georgia and, especially, for Shirvan. The joint struggle of theGeorgians and the people of Shirvan ensured the independence of Shirvan from the Seljuk conquerors. From now on, Georgia and Shirvan became closer to each other.[36]
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The kingdom continued to flourish underDemetrius I, the son of David. Although his reign saw a disruptive family conflict related to royal succession, Georgia remained a centralized power with a strong military. As soon as he ascended to the throne, the neighbouring Muslim rulers began attacking Georgia from all sides. The Seljuqid sultans fought to restore the rule of theShirvanshahs. Shirvan's large Muslim population rose against Georgia. This probably happened in 1129 or 1130, when Demetrius restored the Shirvanshahs to power inShirvan, installing on the throneManuchihr II, the husband of his daughterRusudan. Shirvanshahs had to provide the Georgian king with troops whenever the latter demanded it.
In 1139, Demetrius raided the city ofGanja inArran. He brought theiron gate of the defeated city to Georgia and donated it toGelati Monastery atKutaisi. Despite this brilliant victory, Demetrius could hold Ganja only for a few years.[37][38] In reply to this, the sultan of Eldiguzids attacked Ganja several times, and in 1143 the town again fell to the sultan. According toMkhitar Gosh, Demetrius ultimately gained possession of Ganja, but, when he gave his daughter in marriage to the sultan, he presented the latter with the town as dowry, and the sultain appointed his own emir to rule it.
Fadl's successor,Fakr al-Din Shaddad, aShaddadid emir of Ani asked forSaltuk's daughter's hand, however Saltuk refused him. This caused a deep hatred in Shaddad towards Saltuk. In 1154 he planned a plot and formed a secret alliance with the Demetrius I. While a Georgian army waited in ambush, he offered tribute toSaltukids, ruler ofErzerum and asked the latter to accept him as a vassal. In 1153–1154 EmirSaltuk II marched on Ani, but Shaddad informed his suzerain, the King of Georgia, of this. Demetrius marched to Ani, defeated and captured the emir. At the request of neighbouring Muslim rulers and released him for a ransom of 100,000dinars, paid by Saltuk's sons in law and Saltuk swore not to fight against the Georgians he returned home.[39]
In 1156 the Ani's Christian population rose against the emirFakr al-Din Shaddad, and turned the town over to his brotherFadl ibn Mahmud. But Fadl, too, apparently could not satisfy the people of Ani, and this time the town was offered to the George III, who took advantage of this offer and subjugated Ani, he took much loot from Ani and carried off into captivity the whole family ofShaddadids, including Fadl. Appointing his generalIvane Orbeli as its ruler in 1161.
In July, 1161 troops of a Muslim coalition consisting, namely those of the Shah-Armens ofAhlat,Saltukids of Erzerum, and the lord ofKars and Surmari was formed. Allies selected the route through theriver Araxes, and theArtuqid lord Najm al-din set out to join them. In August, 1161 they arrived before Ani and besieged it. When the king George III of Georgia has arrived to meet them, the emirSaltuk II remembering his oath to theking Demetrius, lifted the siege and left the battlefield. Muslims were defeated and put to the sword and many of them perished. King George liberated the people of Ani who had been taken captive and gave the devastated town assistance. He then marched against the Saltuk II, and in the same year, 1161, defeated and made him prisoner, who was redeemed by his sister, Shahbanu Hatun, wife of the ruler of Ahlat.
Georgians then entered in Shah-Armen possessions and lootedVan. Some 9000 Muslims, including the nobles and membersSökmen II family were taken as prisoner. The news of the defeat reached the lord Najm ad-din when he had arrived inMalazgirt, the latter went back toMayyafariqin without having joined Shah-Armens or taken part in the battle.
The capture ofAni and the defeat of theSaltukid forces enabled theGeorgian king to march onDvin. The following year in August/September 1162, Dvin was temporarily captured and sacked, the non-Christian population was pillaged and the Georgian troops returned home loaded with booty. The king appointed Ananiya, a member of the local feudal nobility to govern the town.
Shams al-Din Eldiguz, ruler ofAzerbaijan embarked upon a campaign against Kingdom of Georgia in early 1163. TheSeljukid Sultan, Arslan marching fromHamadan met Eldiguz inNakhchavan. He was joined by theSökmen II the ruler ofAhlat,Saltuk II the ruler ofErzurum, As-Sunkur the ruler of Maragha, and many others. With an army of 50,000 troops they marched on Georgia. In 1163 Eldiguz attacked Mren (north of Dvin) where he burnt the fortress, with 4000Christians in it. On 9 July 1163Seljuks inflicted a heavy defeat onGeorgians. They penetrated into the fortress al-Krkri (Gyargyar) where a battle took place, where Georgians sustained a most ignominious defeat.George III was put to flight. Then Seljuks took thefortress of Gagi, laid waste as far as the region of Gagi andGegharkunik, seized prisoners and booty, and then moved to Ani. In April, 1164 Georgians evacuated the town. Eldiguz arrived and gave Ani to the emirShahanshah ibn Mahmud.
TheMuslim rulers were jubilant, and they prepared for a new campaign. However, this time they were forestalled byGeorge III, who marched intoArran at the beginning of 1166, occupied a region extending toGan
ja, devastated the land and turn back with prisoners and booty. The struggle for Ani continued. For four long yearsAni was attacked ceaselessly. The population was reduced to misery, the land was not tilled and the economy was dislocated. There seemed to be no end to the war between George III andatabeg Eldiguz. But the belligerents were exhausted to such an extent that Eldiguz proposed an armistice. George had no alternative but to make concessions. Eldiguz restored Ani to its former rulers, theShaddadids, who became his vassals.
TheShaddadids, ruledAni for about 10 years, but in 1174 KingGeorge captured theShahanshah ibn Mahmud as a prisoner andcaptured Ani once again. Ivane Orbeli, was appointed governor of Ani.
The successes of his predecessors were built upon byQueen Tamar, daughter ofGeorge III, who became the first female ruler of Georgia in her own right and under whose leadership the Georgian state reached the zenith of power and prestige in theMiddle Ages. Tamar was successful in neutralizing this opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the decline of the hostileSeljuq Turks. Relying on a powerful militaryélite, Tamar was able to build an empire which dominated theCaucasus until its collapse under theMongol attacks within two decades after Tamar's death.
Once Tamar succeeded in consolidating her power and found a reliable support inDavid Soslan, theMkhargrdzeli,Toreli, and other noble families, she revived the expansionist foreign policy of her predecessors. Repeated occasions of dynastic strife in Georgia combined with the efforts of regional successors of theGreat Seljuq Empire, such as theEldiguzids,Shirvanshahs, and theAhlatshahs, had slowed down the dynamic of the Georgians achieved during the reigns of Tamar's great-grandfather,David IV, and her father, George III. However, the Georgians became again active under Tamar, more prominently in the second decade of her rule.
Early in the 1190s, the Georgian government began to interfere in the affairs of the Eldiguzids and of the Shirvanshahs, aiding rivaling local princes and reducingShirvan to a tributary state. The Eldiguzid atabegAbu Bakr attempted to stem the Georgian advance, but suffered a defeat at the hands of David Soslan at theBattle of Shamkor[40] and lost his capital to a Georgian protégé in 1195. Although Abu Bakr was able to resume his reign a year later, the Eldiguzids were only barely able to contain further Georgian forays.[41][42]
The question of liberation of Armenia remained of prime importance in Georgia's foreign policy. Tamar's armies led by twoArmenian generals,Zakare andIvane Zakarian overran fortresses and cities towards theArarat Plain, reclaiming one after another fortresses and districts from local Muslim rulers.
Alarmed by the Georgian successes,Süleymanshah II, the resurgent Seljuqidsultan of Rûm, rallied his vassalemirs and marched against Georgia, but his camp was attacked and destroyed by David Soslan at theBattle of Basian in 1203 or 1204. The chronicler of Tamar describes how the army was assembled at the rock-hewn town ofVardzia before marching on to Basian and how the queen addressed the troops from the balcony of the church.[43] Exploiting her success in this battle, between 1203 and 1205 Georgians seized the town ofDvin[44] and enteredAkhlatshah possessions twice and subdued the emir ofKars (vassal of theSaltukids in Erzurum),Akhlatshahs, the emirs ofErzurum andErzincan.
In 1204–1205, theGeorgians raided the northern areas ofLake Van, theArchesh andManzikert. After the death of the last Sokhmenid ruler ofShah-Armen without an heir, a struggle began between theAyyubids to seize power in the Sultanate. Disturbances at home and external pressure turned out to be the reason for the weakening of Shah-Armens and they were no longer able to deal with the threat from the Georgians. TheMuslim rulers of the region, could not adapt to the strengthening ofChristian Georgia, and that is why the Sultan ofAhlat called for help from theEmir Toghrulshah ofErzurum. They marched with a common army towards the borders of Georgia. When the Georgians found out about the enemy's intentions, they were overconfident, ignored the danger coming from them and faced the enemy defenseless.
Georgians marched onAhlat in 1205–1206. However, this attempt also ended in failure, because the purpose of this campaign was not the complete conquest of theShah-Armens, but its plundering. The two crushing defeats experienced against Shah-Armens had a negative impact on Georgia's international status. The situation needed to be corrected immediately.
Simultaneously with the murder of Balaban, the last ruler of theShah-Armens, in 1206 theKingdom of Georgia under the command ofDavit Soslan besiegedKars (vassal of the Shah-Armens) and other fortresses along theAras river. The Emir of Kars appealed to the Sultan of the Shah-Armens for help, but he was powerless to find help. In such a situation, theemir of Kars asked the Georgians for a truce and in return gave up the fortress.Ivane Akhaltsikheli was appointed as theAmirtamira of Kars.
In 1210–1211, theZakarids–Mkhargrdzeli brothers Zakare and Ivane waste toArdabil – according to the Georgian and Armenian annals – as a revenge for the local Muslim ruler's attack on Ani and his massacre of the city's Christian population.[46] In a great final burst, the brothers led an army marshaled throughout Tamar's possessions and vassal territories in a march, throughNakhchivan andJulfa, toMarand,Tabriz, andQazvin in northwestIran, pillaging several settlements on their way.[46]
George IV continued Tamar's policy. Heput down the revolts in neighbouringMuslim vassal states in the 1210s and began preparations for a large-scale campaign againstJerusalem to support theCrusaders in 1220. However, theMongols approach to the Georgian borders made the Crusade plan unrealistic. The firstMongol expedition defeated Georgian armies in 1221–1222. George IV died fighting them in 1223 and his sisterRusudan made a desperate alliance against Mongols when she and her daughterTamar married to Seljuk princes ofErzurum andSultanate of Rum. The former enemies were now the closest allies (Battle of Köse Dağ) but that did not prevent the Mongol advance.
Zakare and Ivane Mqargrdzeli on the east facade at Harichavank, Armenia, 1201
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