Born in theColony of Virginia, Washington became the commander of theVirginia Regiment during theFrench and Indian War (1754–1763). He was later elected to theVirginia House of Burgesses, and opposed the perceived oppression of the American colonists by the British Crown. When the American Revolutionary War against the British began in 1775, Washington was appointedcommander-in-chief of the Continental Army. He directed a poorly organized and equipped force against disciplined British troops. Washington and his army achieved an early victory at theSiege of Boston in March 1776 but were forced toretreat from New York City in November. Washingtoncrossed the Delaware River and won the battlesof Trenton in late 1776 andof Princeton in early 1777, then lost the battlesof Brandywine andof Germantown later that year. He faced criticism of his command, low troop morale, and a lack of provisions for his forces as the war continued. Ultimately Washington led a combined French and American force to a decisive victory over the British atYorktown in 1781. In the resultingTreaty of Paris in 1783, the British acknowledged the sovereign independence of the United States. Washington then served as president of theConstitutional Convention in 1787, which drafted the currentConstitution of the United States.
George Washington was born on February 22, 1732,[a] atPopes Creek inWestmoreland County, Virginia.[3] He was the first of six children ofAugustine andMary Ball Washington.[4] His father was ajustice of the peace and a prominent public figure who had four additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler.[5] Washington was not close to his father and rarely mentioned him in later years; he had a fractious relationship with his mother.[6] Among his siblings, he was particularly close to his older half-brotherLawrence.[7]
The family moved to a plantation onLittle Hunting Creek in 1735 before settling atFerry Farm nearFredericksburg, Virginia, in 1738. When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; Lawrence inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed itMount Vernon.[8] Because of his father's death, Washington did not have the formal education his elder half-brothers had received atAppleby Grammar School in England; he instead attended theLower Church School inHartfield. He learned mathematics and landsurveying, and became a talenteddraftsman andmapmaker. By early adulthood, he was writing with what his biographerRon Chernow described as "considerable force" and "precision".[9] As a teenager, Washington compiled over a hundred rules for social interaction styledThe Rules of Civility, copied from an English translation of a French guidebook.[10]
Washington often visitedBelvoir, the plantation ofWilliam Fairfax, Lawrence's father-in-law, and Mount Vernon. Fairfax became Washington's patron and surrogate father. In 1748, Washington spent a month with a team surveying Fairfax'sShenandoah Valley property.[11] The following year, he received a surveyor's license from theCollege of William & Mary.[b] Even though Washington had not served the customaryapprenticeship,Thomas Fairfax (William's cousin) appointed him surveyor ofCulpeper County, Virginia. Washington took his oath of office on July 20, 1749, and resigned in 1750.[12] By 1752, he had bought almost 1,500 acres (600 ha) in the Shenandoah Valley and owned 2,315 acres (937 ha).[13]
In 1751, Washington left mainland North America for the first and only time, when he accompanied Lawrence toBarbados, hoping the climate would cure his brother'stuberculosis.[14] Washington contractedsmallpox during the trip, which left his face slightly scarred.[15] Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow, Ann; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761.[16]
Colonial military career (1752–1758)
Lawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of theVirginia militia inspired George to seek amilitia commission. Virginia's lieutenant governor,Robert Dinwiddie, appointed Washington as a major and commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of theOhio River Valley: the British were constructing forts along the river, and the French between the river andLake Erie.[17]
In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as aspecial envoy to demand the French forces vacate land that was claimed by the British. Washington was also directed to make peace with theIroquois Confederacy and to gather intelligence about the French forces.[18] Washington met with Iroquois leaderTanacharison atLogstown.[19] Washington said that at this meeting Tanacharison named himConotocaurius. This name, meaning "devourer of villages", had previously been given to his great-grandfatherJohn Washington in the late 17th century by theSusquehannock.[20]
Washington's party reached the Ohio River in November 1753 and was intercepted by a French patrol. The party was escorted toFort Le Boeuf, where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered the British demand to vacate to the French commanderJacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer after a few days' delay, as well as food and winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia.[21] Washington completed the precarious mission in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and London.[22]
In February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 300-strongVirginia Regiment, with orders to confront the French at theForks of the Ohio.[23] Washington set out with half the regiment in April and was soon aware that a French force of 1,000 had begun construction ofFort Duquesne there. In May, having established adefensive position at Great Meadows, Washington learned that the French had made camp seven miles (11 km) away; he decided to take the offensive.[24] The French detachment proved to be only about 50 men, so on May 28 Washington commandedan ambush. His small force of Virginians and Indian allies[c][26] killed the French, including their commanderJoseph Coulon de Jumonville, who had been carrying a diplomatic message for the British. The French later found their countrymen dead andscalped, blaming Washington, who had retreated toFort Necessity.[27]
The rest of the Virginia Regiment joined Washington the following month with news that he had been promoted to the rank of colonel and given command of the full regiment. They were reinforced by anindependent company of a hundred South Carolinians led by CaptainJames Mackay; his royal commission outranked Washington's and a conflict of command ensued. On July 3, 900 French soldiers attacked Fort Necessity, and theensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender.[28] Washington did not speak French, but signed a surrender document in which he unwittingly took responsibility for "assassinating" Jumonville, later blaming the translator for not properly translating it.[29] The Virginia Regiment was divided and Washington was offered a captaincy in one of the newly formed regiments. He refused, as it would have been a demotion—the British had ordered that "colonials" could not be ranked any higher than captain—and instead resigned his commission.[30][31] The Jumonville affair became the incident which ignited theFrench and Indian War.[32]
In 1755, Washington volunteered as an aide to GeneralEdward Braddock, who led a Britishexpedition to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and theOhio Country.[33] On Washington's recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a smaller "flying column".[34] Washington was suffering from severedysentery so did not initially travel with the expedition forces. When he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela, still very ill, the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army. Two-thirds of the British force became casualties in the ensuingBattle of the Monongahela, and Braddock was killed. Under the command of Lieutenant ColonelThomas Gage, Washington rallied the survivors and formed arear guard, allowing the remnants of the force to retreat.[35] During the engagement, Washington had two horses shot out from under him, and his hat and coat were pierced by bullets.[36] His conduct redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity,[37] but he was not included by the succeeding commander (Colonel Thomas Dunbar) in planning subsequent operations.[38]
The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel. Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with CaptainJohn Dagworthy, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters inFort Cumberland.[39] Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock's successor asCommander-in-Chief,William Shirley, and again in January 1757 with Shirley's successor,Lord Loudoun. Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission, and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.[40]
In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to the BritishForbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne.[41][31] GeneralJohn Forbes took Washington's advice on some aspects of the expedition but rejected his opinion on the best route to the fort.[42] Forbes nevertheless made Washington abrevet brigadier general and gave him command of one of the three brigades that was assigned to assault the fort. The French had abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault, however, and Washington only saw afriendly fire incident, which left 14 dead and 26 injured. Frustrated, he resigned his commission soon afterwards and returned to Mount Vernon.[43]
Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended 300 miles (480 km) of frontier against 20 Indian attacks in 10 months.[44] He increased the professionalism of the regiment as it grew from 300 to 1,000 men. Though he failed to realize a royal commission, which made him hostile towards the British,[31] he gained self-confidence, leadership skills, and knowledge of British military tactics. The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government.[45]
On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, marriedMartha Dandridge Custis, the 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation ownerDaniel Parke Custis. Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple had a happy marriage.[46] They lived at Mount Vernon, where Washington cultivated tobacco and wheat.[47] The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-thirddower interest in the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha)Custis estate, and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children. As a result, he became one of the wealthiest men in Virginia, which increased his social standing.[48]
At Washington's urging, GovernorLord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise to grant land bounties to those who served with volunteer militias during the French and Indian War.[49] In late 1770, Washington inspected the lands in the Ohio andGreat Kanawha regions, and he engaged surveyorWilliam Crawford to subdivide it. Crawford allotted 23,200 acres (9,400 ha) to Washington, who told the veterans that their land was unsuitable for farming and agreed to purchase 20,147 acres (8,153 ha), leaving some feeling that they had been duped.[50] He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha) and, by 1775, had more than doubled its slave population to over one hundred.[51]
As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representingFrederick County in theVirginia House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758.[d][51] Early in his legislative career, Washington rarely spoke at or even attended legislative sessions, but was more politically active starting in the 1760s, becoming a prominent critic of Britain's taxation andmercantilist policies towards the American colonies.[53] Washington imported luxury goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco. His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him £1,800 in debt by 1764.[54] Washington's complete reliance on London tobacco buyer and merchant Robert Cary also threatened his economic security.[e][56] Between 1764 and 1766, he sought to diversify his holdings: he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to includeflour milling andhemp farming.[57] Washington's stepdaughter Patsy suffered fromepileptic attacks, and she died at Mount Vernon in 1773, allowing Washington to use part of the inheritance from her estate to settle his debts.[58]
Washington was opposed to the taxes which theBritish Parliament imposed on the Colonies withoutproper representation.[59] He believed theStamp Act 1765 was oppressive and celebrated its repeal the following year. In response to theTownshend Acts, he introduced a proposal in May 1769 which urged Virginians to boycott British goods; the Townshend Acts were mostly repealed in 1770.[60] Washington and other colonists were also angered by theRoyal Proclamation of 1763 (which banned American settlement west of theAllegheny Mountains)[61] and British interference in American western landspeculation (in which Washington was a participant).[62]
Washington initially banned the enlistment of Black soldiers, both free and enslaved. The British saw an opportunity to divide the colonies: the colonial governor of Virginia issueda proclamation promising freedom to slaves if they joined the British forces.[74] In response to this proclamation and the need for troops, Washington soon overturned his ban.[75] By the end of the war, around one-tenth of the soldiers in the Continental Army were Black, with some obtaining freedom.[76]
In April 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, British troops occupiedBoston, led by GeneralThomas Gage, commander of British forces in America.[77] Local militias surrounded the city and trapped the British troops, resulting in a standoff.[78] As Washington headed for Boston, he was greeted by cheering crowds and political ceremony; he became a symbol of thePatriot cause.[79] Upon Washington's arrival on July 2, he went to inspect the army, but found undisciplined militia.[80] After consultation, he initiatedBenjamin Franklin's suggested reforms, instituting military drills and imposing strict disciplinary measures.[81] Washington promoted some of the soldiers who had performed well atBunker Hill to officer rank, and removed officers who he saw as incompetent.[82] In October, KingGeorge III declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved Gage of command, replacing him with GeneralWilliam Howe.[83]
When theCharles River froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but Gates and others were opposed to having untrained militia attempt to assault well-garrisoned fortifications. Instead, Washington agreed tosecure the Dorchester Heights above Boston to try to force the British out.[84] On March 17, 8,906 British troops, 1,100Loyalists, and 1,220 women and children began a chaotic naval evacuation. Washington entered the city with 500 men, giving them explicit orders not to plunder.[85] He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities.[g][88]
After the victory at Boston, Washington correctly guessed that the British would return to New York City and retaliate. He arrived there on April 13, 1776, and ordered the construction of fortifications. He also ordered his forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses Bostonians suffered at the hands of British troops.[89] The British forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving onStaten Island in July to lay siege to the city.[90]
Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars andHessian auxiliaries; Washington had 23,000 men, mostly untrained recruits and militia.[91] In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops atGravesend, Brooklyn, and approached Washington's fortifications. Overruling his generals, Washington chose to fight, based on inaccurate information that Howe's army had only around 8,000 soldiers.[92] In theBattle of Long Island, Howe assaulted Washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties.[93] Washington retreated toManhattan.[94]
Howe sent a message to Washington to negotiate peace, addressing him as "George Washington, Esq." Washington declined to accept the message, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol—not as a rebel.[95] Despite misgivings, Washington heeded the advice of General Greene to defendFort Washington, but was ultimately forced to abandon it.[96] Howe pursued and Washington retreated across theHudson River toFort Lee. In November, Howecaptured Fort Washington. Loyalists in New York City considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city.[97] Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated throughNew Jersey.[98]
Washington crossed theDelaware River intoPennsylvania, where GeneralJohn Sullivan joined him with 2,000 more troops.[99] The future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to a lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, anddesertions.[100] Howe posted a Hessian garrison atTrenton to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware.[101] At sunrise on December 26, 1776, Washington, aided by Colonel Knox and artillery, led his men ina successful surprise attack on the Hessians.[102]
Washington returned to New Jersey on January 3, 1777, launchingan attack on the British regulars atPrinceton, with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured.[103] Howe retreated to New York City for the winter.[104] Washington took up winter headquarters inMorristown, New Jersey.[105] Strategically, Washington's victories at Trenton and Princeton were pivotal: they revived Patriot morale and quashed the British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms, changing the course of the war.[106]
InUpstate New York, the Patriots were led by General Horatio Gates. Concerned about Burgoyne's movements southward, Washington sent reinforcements north with GeneralsBenedict Arnold andBenjamin Lincoln. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to takeBemis Heights but was isolated from support and forced to surrender. Gates' victory emboldened Washington's critics, who favored Gates as a military leader.[109] According to the biographer John Alden, "It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared."[110] Admiration for Washington was waning.[111]
Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge, a 1907 painting byJohn Ward Dunsmore
Washington and his army of 11,000 men went into winter quarters atValley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. There they lost between 2,000 and 3,000 men as a result of disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter, reducing the army to below 9,000 men.[112] By February, Washington was facing low troop morale and increased desertions.[113] Aninternal revolt by his officers prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from command. Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was ultimately dropped.[114]
Washington made repeated petitions to Congress for provisions and expressed the urgency of the situation to a congressional delegation.[115] Congress agreed to strengthen the army's supply lines and reorganize thequartermaster andcommissary departments, while Washington launched theGrand Forage of 1778[h] to collect food from the surrounding region.[116] Meanwhile, BaronFriedrich Wilhelm von Steuben's incessant drilling transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force.[117] Washington appointed himInspector General.[118]
In early 1778, the French entered into aTreaty of Alliance with the Americans.[119] In May, Howe resigned and was replaced bySir Henry Clinton.[120] The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June and Washington summoned a war council of American and French generals. He chose to order a limited strike on the retreating British. Generals Lee and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first strike on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw afteran expansive battle. The British continued their retreat to New York.[121]This battle "marked the end of the war's campaigning in the northern and middle states. Washington would not fight the British in a major engagement again for more than three years".[122] British attention shifted to the Southern theatre; in late 1778, General Clinton capturedSavannah, Georgia, a key port in the American South.[123] Washington, meanwhile, orderedan expedition against theIroquois, the Indigenous allies of the British, destroying their villages.[124]
Washington became America's firstspymaster by designing an espionage system against the British.[125] In 1778, MajorBenjamin Tallmadge formed theCulper Ring at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about the British in New York.[126] Intelligence from the Culper Ring saved French forces from a surprise British attack, which was itself based on intelligence from Washington's general turned British spy Benedict Arnold.[127]
Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many campaigns, includingthe invasion of Quebec.[128] In 1779, Arnold began supplying the British spymasterJohn André with sensitive information intended to allow the British to captureWest Point, a key American defensive position on the Hudson River.[129] On September 21, Arnold gave André plans to take over the garrison.[130] André was captured by militia who discovered the plans, after which Arnold escaped to New York.[131] On being told about Arnold's treason, Washington recalled the commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity. He assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses.[132]
By June 1780, the British had occupied the South CarolinaPiedmont and had firm control of the South. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies,[133] and 5,000 veteran French troops led by MarshalRochambeau arrived atNewport, Rhode Island in July.[134]
General Clinton sent Arnold, now a British brigadier general, to Virginia in December with 1,700 troops to capturePortsmouth and conduct raids on Patriot forces. Washington sent Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts.[135] Washington initially hoped to bring the fight to New York, drawing the British forces away from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised him thatCornwallis in Virginia was the better target.[136] On August 19, 1781, Washington and Rochambeau began a march toYorktown, Virginia, known now as the "celebrated march".[137] Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continental troops. Inexperienced in siege warfare, he often deferred to the judgment of Rochambeau. Despite this, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer.[138]
By late September, Patriot-French forces surrounded Yorktown, trapping the British Army, while the French navy emerged victorious at theBattle of the Chesapeake. The final American offensive began with a shot fired by Washington.[124] The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781; over 7,000 British soldiers becameprisoners of war.[139] Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19.[140] Although the peace treaty was not negotiated for two more years, Yorktown proved to be the last significant battle of the Revolutionary War, with the British Parliament agreeing to cease hostilities in March 1782.[141]
When peace negotiations began in April 1782, both the British and French began gradually evacuating their forces.[142] In March 1783, Washington successfully calmed theNewburgh Conspiracy, a planned mutiny by American officers dissatisfied with a lack of pay.[31][143] Washington submitted an account of $450,000 in expenses which he had advanced to the army. The account was settled, though it was vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters.[144]
When theTreaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, Britain officially recognized American independence. Washington disbanded his army, giving a farewell address to his soldiers on November 2.[145] He oversaw theevacuation of British forces in New York and was greeted by parades and celebrations.[146]
In early December 1783, Washington bade farewell to his officers atFraunces Tavern andresigned as commander-in-chief soon after.[147] In a final appearance in uniform, he gave a statement to the Congress: "I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to His holy keeping."[148] Washington's resignation was acclaimed at home and abroad, "extolled by later historians as a signal event that set the country's political course" according to the historianEdward J. Larson.[149][i] The same month, Washington was appointed president-general of theSociety of the Cincinnati, a newly established hereditary fraternity of Revolutionary War officers.[151]
"I am not only retired from all public employments but I am retiring within myself, and shall be able to view the solitary walk and tread the paths of private life with heartfelt satisfaction ... I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers."
— George Washington in a letter to Lafayette. February 1, 1784.[152]
After spending just ten days at Mount Vernon out of8+1⁄2 years of war, Washington was eager to return home. He arrived on Christmas Eve; ProfessorJohn E. Ferling wrote that he was delighted to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life".[153] He received a constant stream of visitors paying their respects at Mount Vernon.[154]
Washington reactivated his interests in theGreat Dismal Swamp andPotomac Canal projects, begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends.[155] He undertook a 34-day, 680-mile (1,090 km) trip in 1784 to check on his land holdings in the Ohio Country.[156] He oversaw the completion of remodeling work at Mount Vernon, which transformed his residence into the mansion that survives to this day—although his financial situation was not strong. Creditors paid him indepreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages. Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and bad weather. His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in 1787.[157]
To make his estate profitable again, Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and native shrubs.[158] He also began breedingmules after being gifted astud by KingCharles III of Spain in 1785;[159] he believed that they would revolutionize agriculture.[160]
Before returning to private life in June 1783, Washington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to the states, maintaining that theArticles of Confederation were no more than "a rope of sand". He believed the nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government.[161]
WhenShays's Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts in August 1786, Washington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed.[162][31] Some nationalists feared that the new republic had descended into lawlessness, and they met on September 11, 1786, atAnnapolis to ask the Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation.[163] Congress agreed to aConstitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787, with each state to send delegates.[164] Washington was chosen to lead the Virginia delegation, but he declined. He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consultedJames Madison, Henry Knox, and others. They persuaded him to attend as they felt his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process while also giving legitimacy to the convention.[165]
Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, 1787, and the convention began on May 25. Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the meeting, and he was unanimously elected.[166] The delegateEdmund Randolph introduced Madison'sVirginia Plan; it called for an entirely new constitution and a sovereign national government, which Washington highly recommended.[167] However, details around representation were particularly contentious, resulting in a competingNew Jersey Plan being brought forward.[168] On July 10, Washington wrote to Alexander Hamilton: "I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business."[169] Nevertheless, he lent his prestige to the work of the other delegates, lobbying many to support the ratification of theConstitution.[170] The final version adopted theConnecticut Compromise between the two plans, and wassigned by 39 of 55 delegates on September 17, 1787.[171]
Just prior to the first presidential election of 1789, in 1788 Washington was appointedchancellor of the College of William & Mary.[172] He continued to serve through his presidency until his death.[173] The delegates to the convention for the first presidential election anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected.[169] When the state electors voted on February 4, 1789,[174] Washington was unanimously elected, unique among U.S. presidents.[175] John Adams was elected vice president.[176] Despite writing that he felt "anxious and painful sensations" about leaving Mount Vernon, Washington departed for New York City on April 16.[177]
Washington wasinaugurated on April 30, 1789, taking theoath of office atFederal Hall in New York City.[j][179] His coach was led by militia and a marching band and followed by statesmen and foreign dignitaries in an inaugural parade, with a crowd of 10,000.[180]Robert R. Livingston administered the oath, using aBible provided by the Masons.[181] Washington read a speech in the Senate Chamber, asking "that Almighty Being ... consecrate the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States".[182] Though he wished to serve without a salary, Congress insisted that he receive one,[31] providing Washington $25,000 annually (compared to $5,000 annually for the vice president).[183]
Washington wrote to James Madison: "As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles."[184] To that end, he argued against the majestic titles proposed by the Senate, including "His Majesty" and "His Highness the President", in favor of "Mr. President".[185] His executive precedents included the inaugural address, messages to Congress, and thecabinet form of theexecutive branch.[186] He also selected the first justices for theSupreme Court.[187]
Washington was an able administrator and judge of talent and character.[188] The oldConfederation lacked the powers to handle its workload and had weak leadership, no executive, a small bureaucracy of clerks, large debt, worthless paper money, and no power to establish taxes.[189] Congress created executive departments in 1789, including theState Department, theWar Department, and theTreasury Department. Washington appointed Edmund Randolph asAttorney General,Samuel Osgood asPostmaster General,Thomas Jefferson asSecretary of State, Henry Knox asSecretary of War, and Alexander Hamilton asSecretary of the Treasury. Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution.[190] Washington restricted cabinet discussions to topics of his choosing and expected department heads to agreeably carry out his decisions.[189] He exercised restraint in usinghis veto power, writing that "I give my Signature to many Bills with which my Judgment is at variance."[191]
Washington opposed political factionalism and remained non-partisan throughout his presidency (the only United States president to do so). He was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government.[192] Washington's closest advisors formed two factions, portending theFirst Party System. Hamilton formed theFederalist Party to promote national credit and a financially powerful nation. Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded theJeffersonian Republicans. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect—resulting in bitter controversy.[193]Other domestic issues during Washington's first term included the planning of a permanent capital,[194] the passage of several constitutional amendments including theBill of Rights, and continuing debates concerning slavery[195] and expansion into Native American territory.[196] Washington proclaimed November 26, 1789, as a day ofThanksgiving to encourage national unity.[197]
Washington initially planned to retire after his first term, weary of office and in poor health. After dealing with the infighting in his cabinet and with partisan critics, he showed little enthusiasm for a second term, and Martha wanted him not to run.[198] Washington's nephewGeorge Augustine Washington, managing Mount Vernon in his absence, was critically ill, further increasing Washington's desire to retire.[199] Many, however, urged him to run for a second term. Madison told him that his absence would allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet and the House to worsen. Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire, pledging to drop his attacks on Hamilton.[200] Hamilton maintained that Washington's absence would be "deplored as the greatest evil" to the country.[201] With theelection of 1792 nearing, Washington agreed to run.[202] On February 13, 1793, theElectoral College unanimously re-elected Washington president, while John Adams was re-elected as vice president by a vote of 77 to 50.[202] Washington was sworn into office by Associate JusticeWilliam Cushing on March 4, 1793, inCongress Hall in Philadelphia.[203]
On April 22, 1793, after theFrench Revolutionary Wars broke out, Washingtonissued a proclamation declaring American neutrality. He was resolved to pursue "a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers" while warning Americans not to intervene in the conflict.[204] Although Washington recognized France's revolutionary government, he eventually asked that the French minister to the United States,Edmond-Charles Genêt, be recalled.[205] Genêt was a diplomatic troublemaker who was openly hostile toward Washington's neutrality policy. He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces (British allies) inFlorida while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions. However, his efforts failed to draw the United States into the conflict.[206]
During his second term Washington faced two major domestic conflicts. The first was theWhiskey Rebellion (1791–1794), a Pennsylvania revolt against liquor taxation. Washington mobilized a militia and personally commanded an expedition against the rebels which suppressed the insurgency.[207][31] The second was theNorthwest Indian War between White settlers and Native Americans who were supported by the British; the latter were stationed in forts that they had refused to abandon after the Revolutionary War.[31][208] In 1794 American troops defeated the Native American forces at theBattle of Fallen Timbers, ending the conflict between the two.[31]
Hamilton formulated theJay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution.[209] Chief JusticeJohn Jay represented Washington's position and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. Washington supported the treaty because it avoided war,[210] although he was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain.[211] He mobilized public opinion and secured ratification[212] but faced frequent public criticism and political controversy.[213][31] Following the British abandonment of their forts around theGreat Lakes, the proposed position of theCanada–United States border was sent toarbitration. Numerous pre-Revolution debts were settled and the British opened theBritish West Indies to American merchants. The agreement secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade; however, Jefferson claimed that it angered France and "invited rather than avoided" war.[214] Jefferson's claim was verified when relations with France deteriorated after the signing of the treaty, with theFrench Directory authorizing the seizure of American ships two days before Washington's term ended.[215] Succeeding president John Adams was left with the prospect of war.[216] Relations with the Spanish were more successful:Thomas Pinckney negotiated theTreaty of San Lorenzo in 1795, settling the border between the United States and Spanish territory, and guaranteeing American navigational access to theMississippi River.[31][217]
On July 31, 1793, Jefferson submitted his resignation from cabinet.[218] Hamilton resigned from office in January 1795 and was replaced byOliver Wolcott Jr. Washington's relationship with Secretary of War Henry Knox deteriorated over rumors that Knox had profited from contracts for the construction of U.S. frigates ostensibly commissioned to combatBarbary pirates under theNaval Act of 1794. Knox was forced to resign.[219][220] In the final months of his presidency, Washington was assailed by his political foes and a partisan press who accused him of being ambitious and greedy. He came to regard the press as a disuniting force.[221] Washington also opposed demands by Congress to see papers related to the Jay Treaty, arguing that they were not "relative to any purpose under the cognizance of the House of Representatives, except that of an impeachment, which the resolution has not expressed."[31]
At the end of his second term, Washington retired. He was dismayed with the personal attacks against him and wanted to ensure that a truly contested presidential election could be held. He did not feel bound to a two-term limit, but his retirement set a significant precedent.[222] In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, Washington instructed James Madison to prepare a "valedictory address", an initial draft of which was entitled the "Farewell Address".[223] In May 1796, Washington sent the manuscript to Hamilton, who did an extensive rewrite, while Washington provided final edits.[224] On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole'sAmerican Daily Advertiser published the address.[225]
Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, and said that the "name of AMERICAN... must always exalt the just pride of patriotism".[226] Washington warned against the dangers of political parties and entangling foreign alliances with domestic affairs.[227] He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars.[228] He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that "religion and morality are indispensable supports" in a republic.[229]
He closed the address by reflecting on his legacy: "I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which [my unintentioned errors] may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence, and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to themansions of rest."[230] After initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the address and described it as an anti-French campaign document, with Madison believing that Washington was strongly pro-British.[231] In 1972, the Washington scholarJames Flexner referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson'sDeclaration of Independence andAbraham Lincoln'sGettysburg Address.[232] In 2010, Chernow called the "Farewell Address" one of the most influential statements onrepublicanism.[233]
When Washington retired to Mount Vernon in March 1797, he devoted time to his business interests[234] His plantation operations were only minimally profitable.[33] Nearly all of his wealth was in the form of land and slaves rather than ready cash. To supplement his income, Washington erected adistillery forwhiskey production using his enslaved workers.[235]
He was a land speculator, buying parcels of land to spur development around the nearby new capital ofWashington, D.C., (named in his honor in 1791), just up the Potomac River from Mount Vernon. He sold individual lots in the capital to middle-income investors rather than multiple lots to large investors, believing the former would be more likely to commit to making improvements.[236] He held lands in the west (on thePiedmont), which yielded little income, and he unsuccessfully attempted to sell them.[237] At the time of his death in 1799, he held title to more than 58,000 acres (23,000 ha) of land across Virginia, Ohio, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York,Kentucky, and theNorthwest Territory.[238]
In retirement, Washington became an even more committed Federalist. He vocally supported theAlien and Sedition Acts and convinced FederalistJohn Marshall to run for Congress to weaken the Jeffersonian hold onVirginia.[239] When Frenchprivateers began seizing American ships in 1798, and deteriorating relations led to the "Quasi-War". Washington wrote to Secretary of WarJames McHenry offering to organize President Adams' army.[240] Adams nominated him for a lieutenant general commission and the position of commander-in-chief of the armies on July 4, 1798.[241] Washington served as the commanding general from July 13, 1798, until his death 17 months later.[242] He participated in planning but delegated the active leadership of the army to Hamilton. No army invaded the United States during this period, and Washington did not assume a field command.[243]
On December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback in inclement weather for five hours. He then dined with guests without putting on dry clothes.[244] He had a sore throat the next day but was well enough to mark trees for cutting.[245] Early the following morning, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing. He ordered his estate overseer, George Rawlins, to remove nearly a pint of his blood (bloodletting was a common practice of the time). His family summoned doctorsJames Craik,Gustavus Richard Brown, andElisha C. Dick.[246] Brown initially believed Washington hadquinsy; Dick thought the condition was a more serious "violent inflammation of the membranes of the throat".[247] They continued bloodletting to approximately five pints, but Washington's condition deteriorated further. Dick proposed atracheotomy; the other physicians were not familiar with that procedure and disapproved.[248] Washington instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, "Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go."[249]
On his deathbed, afraid of being entombed alive, Washington instructed his private secretaryTobias Lear to wait three days before his burial.[250] According to Lear, Washington died between 10 p.m. and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed. His last words were"'Tis well."[251] The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate. The published account of Craik and Brown stated that his symptoms were consistent with "cynanche trachealis", a term then used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy.[k] Accusations ofmedical malpractice have persisted since Washington's death.[248] Modern medical authors have largely concluded that he likely died from severeepiglottitis complicated by the treatments he was given, which included multiple doses ofcalomel (a purgative) and extensive bloodletting, likely resulting inhypovolemic shock.[l]
Funeral and burial
Washington's funeral was held on December 18, 1799, four days after his death, at Mount Vernon. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends.[256] Reverend Thomas Davis read a brief funeral service, followed by a ceremony performed by members of Washington's Masonic lodge; Washington had been a Freemason since 1752.[257][258] Word of his death traveled slowly, but as it reached other regions, church bells rang and many businesses closed.[259] Memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States. Martha burned her correspondence with Washington to protect its privacy, though five letters between the couple are known to have survived.[260]
Washington was buried in the Washington family vault at Mount Vernon on December 18, 1799.[261] In his will, Washington left instructions for the construction of a new vault;[259] this was completed in 1831, after a disgruntled ex-employee of the estateattempted to steal what he thought was Washington's skull.[262] In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in theUnited States Capitol. Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up, in the words of RepresentativeWiley Thompson, on "a shore foreign to his native soil" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon.[263] On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains, still in the original lead coffin, were placed within a marblesarcophagus designed byWilliam Strickland and constructed by John Struthers.[264]
During Washington's lifetime at least 577 slaves lived and worked at Mount Vernon.[265][266] He inherited some, gained control of 84dower slaves upon his marriage to Martha, and purchased at least 71 slaves between 1752 and 1773.[267] From 1786, he rented slaves as part of an agreement regarding a neighboring estate; they totaled 40 in 1799.[268]
Slavery wasdeeply ingrained in the economic and social fabric of theColony of Virginia.[269][270] Prior to the Revolutionary War, Washington's views on slavery matched those of most Virginiaplanters of the time: "his principal interest was still their contribution to the economic life of the plantation."[271] Beginning in the 1760s, however, Washington gradually grew to oppose it. His first doubts were prompted by his choice to transition from tobacco to grain crops, which left him with a costly surplus of slaves, causing him to question the system's economic efficiency.[272] In a 1778 letter toLund Washington, he made clear his desire "to get quit of Negroes".[273]
His growing disillusionment with the institution was spurred by the principles of the Revolution and revolutionary friends such as Lafayette and Hamilton.[274] Most historians agree the Revolution was central to the evolution of Washington's attitudes;[275] Kenneth Morgan writes that after 1783, "[Washington] began to express inner tensions about the problem of slavery more frequently, though always in private".[276] As president, he remained publicly silent on the topic, believing it was a nationally divisive issue that could undermine the union.[277] He gave moral support to a plan proposed by Lafayette to purchase land and free slaves to work on it, but chose not to participate in the experiment.[278] Washington privately expressed support for emancipation to prominent MethodistsThomas Coke andFrancis Asbury in 1785 but declined to sign their petition.[279] In personal correspondence the next year, he made clear his desire to see the institution of slavery ended by a gradual legislative process, a view that correlated with the mainstream antislavery literature published in the 1780s.[280] Washington emancipated 123 or 124 slaves, which was highly unusual among the large slave-holding Virginians during the Revolutionary era.[281] However, he remained dependent on slave labor to work his farms.[282]
Runaway advertisement forOna Judge, enslaved servant in Washington's presidential household
Based on his private papers and on accounts from his contemporaries, Washington slowly developed a cautious sympathy toward abolitionism that ended with his willfreeing his long-time valetBilly Lee, and freeing the rest of his personally owned slaves outright upon Martha's death.[283] On January 1, 1801, one year after George Washington's death, Martha Washington signed an order to free his slaves. Many of them were reluctant to leave; others refused to abandon spouses or children still held as dower slaves by the Custis estate.[284] Following Washington's instructions in his will, funds were used to feed and clothe the young, aged, and infirm slaves until the early 1830s.[285][31]
Washington was baptized as an infant in April 1732 and was a devoted member of theAnglican Church.[286] He served for more than 20 years as avestryman and churchwarden at theFairfax andTruro parishes in Virginia.[287] He privately prayed and read the Bible daily, and publicly encouraged prayer.[288] He may have takencommunion regularly prior to the Revolution, but he did not do so afterwards.[289]
Washington referred to God inAmerican Enlightenment terms, includingProvidence, theAlmighty, and theDivine Author.[290] He believed in a divine power who watched over battlefields, influenced the outcome of war, protected his life, and was involved in American politics and specifically in the creation of the United States.[291] Chernow has argued that Washington avoided evangelistic Christianity, hellfire-and-brimstone speech, and anything inclined to "flaunt his religiosity", saying that he "never used his religion as a device for partisan purposes or in official undertakings".[292] At the same time, Washington frequently quoted from or paraphrased the Bible, and often referred to the AnglicanBook of Common Prayer.[293]
While president, Washington acknowledged major religious sects, gave speeches on religious toleration, and opposedstate religion.[294] He adopted the ideas, values, and modes of thinking of the Enlightenment,[295] but he harbored no contempt for organized Christianity and its clergy.[295] In 1793, speaking to members of theNew Church inBaltimore, Washington said, "We have abundant reason to rejoice that in this Land the light of truth and reason has triumphed over the power of bigotry and superstition."[296]
Freemasonry was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings.[297] AmericanMasonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical views of thecontroversial European lodges.[298] A Masonic lodge was established inFredericksburg, Virginia, in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason.[257] In 1777, he was recommended for the office ofGrand Master of the newly establishedGrand Lodge of Virginia; sources differ as to whether he declined or was never asked, but he did not assume the role.[299] He served as the charterMaster of Alexandria Masonic lodge No. 22 in 1788–1789.[300]
Personal life
Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox may have rendered him sterile, though Chernow notes that it is possible Martha "sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible".[301] The couple lamented not having any children together.[302] The two raised Martha's childrenJohn Parke Custis (Jacky) andMartha Parke Custis (Patsy), and later Jacky's two youngest childrenEleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) andGeorge Washington Parke Custis (Washy), and supported numerous nieces and nephews.[303] Some descendants ofWest Ford, a slave of Washington's younger brotherJohn Augustine Washington, maintain (based on familyoral history) that Ford was fathered by George Washington, though this paternity has been disputed.[304]
Washington was somewhat reserved in personality, although he was known for having a strong presence. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator nor debater.[305] He drank alcohol in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity.[306] He was taller than most of his contemporaries;[307] accounts of his height vary from 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 3.5 in (1.92 m).[308] He was known for his strength.[309] He had grey-blue eyes and long reddish-brown hair.[310] He did not wear apowdered wig; instead he wore his hair curled, powdered, and tied in aqueue in thefashion of the day.[311][312]
Washington suffered from severetooth decay and ultimately lost all ofhis teeth except one. He had several sets of false teeth during his presidency. Contrary to common lore, these were not made of wood, but of metal,ivory, bone, animal teeth, and human teeth possibly obtained from slaves.[313][314] His dental problems left him in constant pain, which he treated withlaudanum.[315] He also experienced a painful growth in his thigh early in his first presidential term, followed by a life-threatening bout ofpneumonia in 1790 from which he never fully recovered.[316]
Washington was a talented equestrian. Jefferson described him as "the best horseman of his age".[317] He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon; his two favorite horses wereBlueskin andNelson.[318]
Washington is one of the most influential figures in American history.[319] Virginia's GovernorHenry Lee IIIeulogized him as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen".[31] Polls have consistently placed Washington among the highest-ranked of presidents.[320][321][322]
Washington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire.[323] In 1879, Congress proclaimedWashington's Birthday to be a federal holiday.[324] In 1976, he was posthumously appointed General of the Armies of the United States during theAmerican Bicentennial. PresidentGerald Ford stated that Washington would "rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present".[m][326] On March 13, 1978, Washington was officially promoted by the Army.[327]
In the 21st century, Washington's reputation has been critically scrutinized. The historian John Ferling maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever to be referred to as "godlike", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians.[332] The authorDavid Hackett Fischer defined Washington's character as "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others".[333]
Washington's legacy with Native Americans is mixed. Chernow describes Washington as always trying to be even-handed in dealing with Indigenous peoples, hoping they would abandon their itinerant hunting life and adapt to fixed agricultural communities in the manner of White settlers. He also maintains that Washington never advocated outright confiscation of tribal land or the forcible removal of tribes.[334] By contrast,Colin G. Calloway wrote that "Washington had a lifelong obsession with getting Indian land, either for himself or for his nation, and initiated policies and campaigns that had devastating effects in Indian country."[335] He stated:
The growth of the nation demanded the dispossession of Indian people... But if Indians refused and resisted, as they often did, he felt he had no choice but to "extirpate" them and that the expeditions he sent to destroy Indian towns were therefore entirely justified.[336]
Along with other Founding Fathers, Washington has been criticized for holding enslaved people. Though he expressed the desire to see the abolition of slavery through legislation, he did not initiate or support any initiatives for bringing about its end. This has led to calls to remove his name from public buildings and his statue from public spaces.[337][338]
^abcContemporaneous records used theOld Style Julian calendar and theAnnunciation Style of enumerating years, recording his birth as February 11, 1731. The BritishCalendar (New Style) Act 1750 implemented in 1752 altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days and an advance of one year for those between January1 and March 25. For a further explanation, seeOld Style and New Style dates.[2]
^The college's charter gave it the authority to appoint Virginia county surveyors. There is no evidence that Washington actually attended classes there.[12]
^He had been defeated in his campaigns for the seat in 1755 and 1757.[52]
^In a letter of September 20, 1765, Washington protested to "Robert Cary & Co." regarding the low prices he received for his tobacco and the inflated prices he was forced to pay on second-rate goods from London.[55]
^Other reasons Washington was perceived as the best choice for the commander role, according to Chernow, included his "superior presence, infinitely better judgment, more political cunning, and unmatched gravitas... he had the perfect temperament for leadership."[69]
^On January 24, 1776, Congressional delegateEdward Rutledge, echoing General George Washington's own concerns, suggested that a war office similar to Great Britain's be established.[86] Organization of theBoard of War underwent several significant changes after its inception in 1776.[87]
^See, for example, Todd W. Braisted,Grand Forage 1778, Westholme Publishing, 2016.
^Thomas Jefferson praised Washington for his "moderation and virtue" in relinquishing command. Reportedly, upon being informed of Washington's plans by painterBenjamin West, King George III remarked: "If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world."[150]
^There has been debate over whether Washington added "so help me God" to the end of the oath.[178]
^The first account of Washington's death was written by doctors Craik and Brown, published inThe Times ofAlexandria five days after his death. The complete text can be found inThe Eclectic Medical Journal (1858).[252]
^Modern medical experts who blamed medical malpractice include Morens and Wallenborn in 1999,[253][254] and Cheatham in 2008.[255]
^InPortraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer, William Gardner Bell states that Washington was recalled to military service from his retirement in 1798, and "Congress passed legislation that would have made him General of the Armies of the United States, but his services were not required in the field, and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in 1976 when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor."[325]
Anderson, Fred (2007).Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN9780307425393.
Bartoloni-Tuazon, Kathleen (2014).For Fear of an Elective King: George Washington and the Presidential Title Controversy of 1789. Cornell University Press.ISBN9780801452987.
Carp, E. Wayne (2017).To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783. University of North Carolina Press.ISBN9781469639444.
Coe, Alexis (2020).You Never Forget Your First: A Biography of George Washington. Viking Press.ISBN9780735224100.
Cogliano, Francis (2024).A Revolutionary Friendship: Washington, Jefferson, and the American Republic. Harvard University Press.ISBN9780674296596.
Cooke, Jacob E. (2002). "George Washington". In Graff, Henry (ed.).The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed.). Scribner. pp. 1–21.ISBN9780684312262.
Costello, Matthew (2021).The Property of the Nation: George Washington's Tomb, Mount Vernon, and the Memory of the First President. University Press of Kansas.ISBN9780700633364.
Cresswell, Julia, ed. (2010).Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199547937.
—— (2015).First Entrepreneur: How George Washington Built His—and the Nation's—Prosperity. Da Capo Press.ISBN9780306823473.
Lender, Mark; Stone, Gary (2016).Fatal Sunday: George Washington, the Monmouth Campaign, and the Politics of Battle. University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN9780806155135.
Murray, Robert K.; Blessing, Tim H. (1994).Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald Reagan (2nd, updated ed.). Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN9780271010892.
Painter, Nell Irvin (2006).Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195137552.
Cheatham, Michael L. (2008). "The Death of George Washington: An End to the Controversy?".The American Surgeon.74 (8):770–774.doi:10.1177/000313480807400821.PMID18705585.
—— (2001). "The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty".The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography.109 (2):127–158.JSTOR4249911.
Mackowiak, Philip (2021). "George Washington's Recurrent Health Problems and Fatal Infection Re-examined".Clinical Infectious Diseases.72 (10):1850–1853.doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1324.PMID32887987.
Peabody, Bruce G. (2001). "George Washington, Presidential Term Limits, and the Problem of Reluctant Political Leadership".Presidential Studies Quarterly.31 (3):439–453.doi:10.1111/j.0360-4918.2001.00180.x.JSTOR27552322.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
