George IV was the eldest child of King George III andQueen Charlotte. He led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of theRegency era. He was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissionedJohn Nash to build theRoyal Pavilion inBrighton and remodelBuckingham Palace, and commissionedJeffry Wyatville to rebuildWindsor Castle. George's charm and culture earned him the title "the first gentleman of England", but his dissolute way of life and poor relationships with his parents and his wife,Caroline of Brunswick, earned him the contempt of the people and dimmed the prestige of the monarchy. He excluded Caroline fromhis coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopularPains and Penalties Bill in an unsuccessful attempt to divorce her.
George's rule was tarnished by scandal and financial extravagance. His ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible, and he was strongly influenced by favourites.[1] During most of George's regency and reign,Lord Liverpool controlled the government asprime minister of the United Kingdom.Liverpool's government presided over Britain's ultimate victory overNapoleon and negotiated a peace settlement with the French. After Liverpool's retirement, George was forced to acceptCatholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only legitimate child,Princess Charlotte, predeceased him in 1817, as did his childless younger brotherPrince Frederick in 1827, so he was succeeded by another younger brother,William IV.
At the age of 18, Prince George was given a separate establishment, and in dramatic contrast to his prosaic, scandal-free father, threw himself with zest into a life of dissipation and wild extravagance involving heavy drinking and numerous mistresses and escapades. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, but grossly expensive, taste in decorating his residences. George turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 (equivalent to £9,124,000 today[6]) fromParliament and an annual income of £50,000 (equivalent to £7,603,000 today[6]) from his father. It was far too little for his wants—his stables alone cost £31,000 a year. He then established his residence inCarlton House, where he lived a profligate life.[7] Animosity developed between the Prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of theheir apparent. The King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the Prince's adherence toCharles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians.[8]
Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated withMaria Fitzherbert. She was a commoner (though granddaughter of a baronet), six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic.[9] Nevertheless, the Prince was determined to marry her. This was in spite of theAct of Settlement 1701, which barred the spouse of a Catholic from succeeding to the throne, and theRoyal Marriages Act 1772, which prohibited his marriage without the King's consent.[10]
The couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at Fitzherbert's house inPark Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the King's consent was not granted (and never even requested).[11] However, Fitzherbert believed that she was the Prince'scanonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union was to remain secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it.[12] But, in spring 1786, covert allusions to the marriage appeared in the press, and several satirical prints depicted the clandestine marriage.[13]
Prince George was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle. His father refused to assist him, forcing him to quit Carlton House and live at Fitzherbert's residence. In 1787, the Prince's political allies proposed to relieve his debts with a parliamentary grant. George's relationship with Fitzherbert was suspected, and revelation of theillegal marriage would have scandalised the nation and doomed any parliamentary proposal to aid him. Acting on Prince George's authority, theWhig leader Charles James Fox declared that the story was a calumny.[14] Fitzherbert was not pleased with the public denial of the marriage in such vehement terms and contemplated severing her ties to George. He appeased her by asking another Whig,Richard Brinsley Sheridan, to restate Fox's forceful declaration in more careful words. Parliament, meanwhile, granted the Prince £161,000 (equivalent to £25,841,000 today[6]) to pay his debts and £60,000 (equivalent to £9,630,000 today[6]) for improvements to Carlton House.[5][15][16]
In the summer of 1788, theKing's mental health deteriorated, possibly as the result of the hereditary diseaseporphyria.[17][18] He nonetheless discharged some of his duties and declared Parliamentprorogued from 25 September to 20 November. During the prorogation, he became deranged, posing a threat to his own life, and when Parliament reconvened in November, the King could not deliver the customaryspeech from the throne during theState Opening of Parliament. Parliament found itself in an untenable position: according to long-established law it could not proceed to any business until the delivery of the King's Speech at a State Opening.[14][19]
Although arguably barred from doing so, Parliament began debating a regency. In theHouse of Commons, Charles James Fox declared his opinion that Prince George was automatically entitled to exercise sovereignty during the King's incapacity. A contrasting opinion was held by the prime minister,William Pitt the Younger, who argued that, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, the right to choose a regent belonged to Parliament alone.[20] He even stated that, without parliamentary authority "the Prince of Wales had no more right ... to assume the government, than any other individual subject of the country".[21] Though disagreeing on the principle underlying a regency, Pitt agreed with Fox that the Prince of Wales would be the most convenient choice for a regent.[14][19]
The Prince of Wales, though offended by Pitt's boldness, did not lend his full support to Fox's approach. Prince George's brotherPrince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, declared that George would not attempt to exercise any power without previously obtaining the consent of Parliament.[22] Following the passage of preliminary resolutions Pitt outlined a formal plan for the regency, suggesting that Prince George's powers be greatly limited. Among other things, George would not be able either to sell the King's property or to grant apeerage to anyone other than a child of the King. Prince George denounced Pitt's scheme by declaring it a "project for producing weakness, disorder, and insecurity in every branch of the administration of affairs".[23] In the interests of the nation, both factions agreed to compromise.[19]
A significant technical impediment to any Regency Bill involved the lack of a speech from the throne, which was necessary before Parliament could proceed to any debates or votes. The speech was normally delivered by the King but could also be delivered by royal representatives known asLords Commissioners. However, no document could empower the Lords Commissioners to act unless theGreat Seal of the Realm was affixed to it. The seal could not be legally affixed without the prior authorisation of the sovereign. Pitt and his fellow ministers ignored the last requirement and instructed theLord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal without the King's consent, as the act of affixing the Great Seal in itself gave legal force to the bill. Thelegal fiction was denounced byEdmund Burke as "forgery, fraud";[24] a "glaring falsehood"[25] and a "palpable absurdity".[25] Prince Frederick described the plan as "unconstitutional and illegal".[23] Nevertheless, others in Parliament felt that such a scheme was necessary to preserve an effective government. Consequently, on 3 February 1789, more than two months after it had convened, Parliament was formally opened by an "illegal" group of Lords Commissioners. The Regency Bill was introduced, but before it could be passed the King recovered. The King declared retroactively that the instrument authorising the Lords Commissioners to act was valid.[14][19]
How to Escape Winning byThomas Rowlandson. Escape's legs are bound by the motto of theOrder of the Garter, and his jockey is shown holding him back.
Prince George was an avidhorseracing fan and racehorse owner. In 1790, his jockeySamuel Chifney and racehorseEscape were embroiled in a scandal over a perceived reversal of form.[26] The Newmarket stewards did not accept Chifney's explanation and warned the Prince of Wales that if he continued to use Chifney, no gentleman would race against him.[27] In consequence, not wanting to make an example of his jockey, the Prince of Wales sold his stable and ended his connection with the turf. He told Chifney he would be unlikely to return to ownership, "but if I ever do, Sam Chifney, you shall train and manage them. You shall have your 200 guineas a year all the same. I cannot give it to you for your life, I can only give it to you for my own. You have been a good and honest servant to me."[27] Despite pleas from the Jockey Club, the prince never returned to Newmarket.[28][29]
Prince George's debts continued to climb, and his father refused to aid him unless he married his cousinPrincess Caroline of Brunswick.[30] In 1795, the Prince acquiesced, and they were married on 8 April 1795 at theChapel Royal, St James's Palace. The marriage, however, was disastrous; each party was unsuited to the other. The two were formally separated after the birth of their only child,Princess Charlotte, in 1796, and remained separated thereafter. George remained attached to Maria Fitzherbert for the rest of his life, despite several periods of estrangement.[31]
George was rumoured to have fathered several illegitimate children. James Ord (born 1786)—who moved to the United States and became aJesuit priest—was reportedly his son by Fitzherbert.[36] Late in life, George told a friend that he had a son who was a naval officer in the West Indies, whose identity has been tentatively established as Captain Henry A. F. Hervey (1786–1824), reportedly George's child by the songwriterLady Anne Lindsay (later Barnard), a daughter ofJames Lindsay, 5th Earl of Balcarres.[37] Other reported children include Major George Seymour Crole, the son of theatre manager's daughter Eliza Crole; William Hampshire, the son ofpublican's daughter Sarah Brown; and Charles "Beau" Candy, the son of a Frenchwoman with that surname.[38]Anthony Camp, Director of Research at theSociety of Genealogists, has dismissed the claims that George IV was the father of Ord, Hervey, Hampshire and Candy as fictitious.[39]
An act for enabling his Majesty to settle an annuity on his royal highness the prince of Wales, during the joint lives of his Majesty and of his said royal highness; for making provision out of his revenues for the payment of any debts that may be due from his royal highness; for preventing the accumulation of debts in future; and for regulating the mode of expenditure of the said revenues.
An act for enabling his Majesty to settle an Annuity on his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, to continue until the fifth Day of July One thousand eight hundred and six; and for repealing so much of an Act made in the thirty-fifth Year of the Reign of his Majesty, as directs the annual Payment of thirteen thousand rounds out of the Revenues of the Dutchy of Cornwall to the Commissioners appointed by the said Act.
The problem of George's debts, which amounted to the extraordinary sum of £630,000 in 1795[40] (equivalent to £82,215,000 today[6]), was solved (at least temporarily) by Parliament. Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts, it passed thePrince of Wales Act 1795 (35 Geo. 3. c. 129) which provided him an additional sum of £65,000 (equivalent to £8,482,000 today[6]) per annum.[41] In 1803, a further £60,000 (equivalent to £6,921,000 today[6]) was added by theAnnuity to Prince of Wales, etc. Act 1803 (43 Geo. 3. c. 26), and George's debts as at 1795 were finally cleared in 1806, although the debts he had incurred since 1795 remained.[16]
In 1804, a dispute arose over the custody of Princess Charlotte, which led to her being placed in the care of the King. It also led to a parliamentary commission of enquiry into Princess Caroline's conduct after her husband accused her of having an illegitimate son. The investigation cleared Caroline of the charge but still revealed her behaviour to have been extraordinarily indiscreet.[42]
In late 1810, the King's mental health once again broke down, following the death of his youngest daughter,Princess Amelia. Parliament agreed to follow the precedent of 1788; without the King's consent, theLord Chancellor affixed the Great Seal of the Realm toletters patent naming Lords Commissioners. The letters patent lacked theRoyal Sign Manual, but were sealed by request of resolutions passed by both Houses of Parliament. The Lords Commissioners appointed by the letters patent, in the name of the King, then signified the granting ofRoyal Assent to a bill that became theRegency Act 1811. Parliament restricted some of the powers of the Prince Regent (as the Prince of Wales became known). The constraints expired one year after the passage of the Act.[43] The Prince of Wales became Prince Regent on 5 February 1811.[44]
The Regent let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far smaller role than his father. The principle that the prime minister was the person supported by a majority in the House of Commons, whether the King personally favoured him or not, became established.[45] His governments, with little help from the Regent, presided over British policy. One of the most important political conflicts facing the country concernedCatholic emancipation, the movement to relieve Roman Catholics of various political disabilities. TheTories, led by Prime MinisterSpencer Perceval, were opposed to Catholic emancipation, while theWhigs supported it. At the beginning of the Regency, Prince George was expected to support the Whig leader,Lord Grenville. He did not, however, immediately put Grenville and the Whigs into office. Influenced by his mother, he claimed that a sudden dismissal of the Tory government would exact too great a toll on the health of the King (a steadfast supporter of the Tories), thereby eliminating any chance of a recovery.[46]
In 1812, when it appeared highly unlikely that the King would recover, the Prince Regent again failed to appoint a new Whig administration. Instead, he asked the Whigs to join the existingministry under Perceval. The Whigs, however, refused to co-operate because of disagreements over Catholic emancipation. Grudgingly, Prince George allowed Perceval to continue as prime minister.[47]
On 11 May 1812,Perceval was assassinated byJohn Bellingham. The Prince Regent was prepared to reappoint all the members of the Perceval ministry under a new leader. The House of Commons formally declared its desire for a "strong and efficient administration",[48] so George then offered leadership of the government toLord Wellesley and afterwards toLord Moira. He doomed the attempts of both to failure, however, by forcing each to construct an all-party ministry at a time when neither party wished to share power with the other. Possibly using the failure of the two peers as a pretext, George immediately reappointed the Perceval administration, withLord Liverpool as prime minister.[49]
During this period George took an active interest in matters of style and taste, and his associates such as the dandyBeau Brummell and the architectJohn Nash created theRegency style, exemplified by the Regency terraces ofRegent's Park andRegent Street. George took up the new idea of the seaside spa and had theBrighton Pavilion developed as a fantastical seaside palace, adapted by Nash in the "Indian Gothic" style inspired loosely by theTaj Mahal, with extravagant "Indian" and "Chinese" interiors.[52]
George IV's coronation, 19 July 1821George IV atHolyhead en route to Ireland on 7 August 1821, the day of his wife's death
When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent, then aged 57, ascended the throne as George IV, with no real change in his powers.[53] By the time of his accession, he was obese and possibly addicted tolaudanum.[5]
George IV's relationship with his wife Caroline had deteriorated by the time of his accession. They had lived separately since 1796, and both were having affairs. In 1814, Caroline left the United Kingdom for continental Europe, but she chose to return forher husband's coronation and to publicly assert her rights asqueen consort. However, he refused to recognise Caroline as queen, and commanded British ambassadors to ensure that monarchs in foreign courts did the same. By royal command, Caroline's name was omitted from theBook of Common Prayer, theliturgy of theChurch of England.[54]
The King sought a divorce, but his advisors suggested that any divorce proceedings might involve the publication of details relating to George's own adulterous relationships. Therefore, he requested and ensured the introduction of thePains and Penalties Bill, under which Parliament could have imposed legal penalties without a trial in a court of law. The bill would have annulled the marriage and stripped Caroline of the title of queen. The bill proved extremely unpopular with the public, and was withdrawn from Parliament. George decided, nonetheless, to exclude his wife from his coronation atWestminster Abbey, on 19 July 1821. Caroline fell ill that day and died on 7 August; during her final illness she often stated that she thought she had been poisoned.[55]
George's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair, costing about £243,000 (approximately £28,000,000 in 2023;[6] for comparison, his father's coronation had only cost about £10,000). Despite the enormous cost, it was a popular event.[5] In 1821, George became the first monarch to pay a state visit to Ireland sinceRichard II of England.[56] The following year he visitedEdinburgh for "one and twenty daft days".[57] Hisvisit to Scotland, organised by SirWalter Scott, was the first by a reigning monarch since the mid-17th century.[58]
George spent most of his later reign in seclusion atWindsor Castle,[59] but he continued to intervene in politics. At first it was believed that he would support Catholic emancipation, as he had proposed a Catholic Emancipation Bill for Ireland in 1797, but his anti-Catholic views became clear in 1813 when he privately canvassed against the ultimately defeated Catholic Relief Bill of 1813. By 1824 he was denouncing Catholic emancipation in public.[60] Having taken thecoronation oath on his accession, George now argued that he had sworn to uphold the Protestant faith, and could not support any pro-Catholic measures.[61] The influence of the Crown was so great, and the will of the Tories under Prime Minister Liverpool so strong, that Catholic emancipation seemed hopeless. In 1827, however, Liverpool retired, to be replaced by the pro-emancipation ToryGeorge Canning. When Canning entered office, the King, hitherto content with privately instructing his ministers on the Catholic Question, thought it fit to make a public declaration to the effect that his sentiments on the question were those of his revered father, George III.[62]
Canning's views on the Catholic Question were not well received by the most conservative Tories, including the Duke of Wellington. As a result, the ministry was forced to include Whigs.[63] Canning died later in that year, leavingLord Goderich to lead the tenuous Tory–Whig coalition. Goderich left office in 1828, to be succeeded by Wellington, who had by that time accepted that the denial of some measure of relief to Roman Catholics was politically untenable.[64][65] George was never as friendly with Wellington as he had been with Canning and chose to annoy the Duke by pretending to have fought at Waterloo disguised as a German general. With great difficulty Wellington obtained the King's consent to the introduction of a Catholic Relief Bill on 29 January 1829. Under pressure from his fanatically anti-Catholic brotherErnest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the King withdrew his approval and in protest the Cabinet resigneden masse on 4 March. The next day the King, now under intense political pressure, reluctantly agreed to the Bill and the ministry remained in power.[5] Royal assent was finally granted to theCatholic Relief Act on 13 April.[66]
Henry IV Part 2 Act II Scene 4 byHenry Fuseli, 1805
Cartoon (left) of George IV and his mistress Lady Conyngham, satirised asJohn Falstaff andDoll Tearsheet, mirroring a well known work (right) by Fuseli[67]
George's heavy drinking and indulgent lifestyle had taken their toll on his health by the late 1820s. While still Prince of Wales, he had become obese through his huge banquets and copious consumption of alcohol, making him the target of ridicule on the rare occasions that he appeared in public;[68] by 1797, his weight had reached 17 stone 7 pounds (111 kg; 245 lb).[69] By 1824, hiscorset was made for a waist of 50 inches (130 cm).[70] He hadgout,arteriosclerosis,peripheral edema ("dropsy"), and possiblyporphyria. In his last years, he spent whole days in bed and had acute and serious spasms of breathlessness.[5]
George's last years were marked by increasing physical and mental decay and withdrawal from public affairs. Privately, a senior aide to the King confided to his diary: "A more contemptible, cowardly, selfish, unfeeling dog does not exist ... There have been good and wise kings but not many of them ... and this I believe to be one of the worst."[1] By December 1828, like his father, George was almost completely blind fromcataracts, and had such severe gout in his right hand and arm that he could no longer sign documents.[71] In mid-1829,David Wilkie reported the King "was wasting away frightfully day after day", and had become so obese that he looked "like a great sausage stuffed into the covering".[71] George tooklaudanum to counteract severe bladder pains, which left him in a drugged and mentally impaired state for days on end.[72] He underwent surgery to remove a cataract in September 1829, by which time he was regularly taking over 100 drops of laudanum before state occasions.[73]
By the spring of 1830, George's imminent end was apparent. Now largely confined to his bedchambers, having completely lost sight in one eye and describing himself "as blind as a beetle", he was forced to approve legislation with a stamp of his signature in the presence of witnesses.[74] His weight was recorded to be 20 stone (130 kg; 280 lb).[75] Attacks of breathlessness due to dropsy forced him to sleep upright in a chair, and doctors frequently tapped his abdomen in order to drain excess fluid.[72] Despite his obvious decline, George was admired for clinging doggedly to life.[76] His will to live and still-prodigious appetite astonished observers; in April 1830, the Duke of Wellington wrote that the King had consumed for breakfast "a Pidgeon and Beef Steak Pye ... Three parts of a bottle ofMozelle, a Glass of Dry Champagne, two Glasses ofPort [and] a Glass ofBrandy", followed by a large dose of laudanum.[74] Writing to Maria Fitzherbert in June, the King's physician, SirHenry Halford, noted "His Majesty's constitution is a gigantic one, and his elasticity under the most severe pressure exceeds what I have ever witnessed in thirty-eight years' experience."[77] Though George had been under Halford's care since the time of the Regency, the doctor's social ambitions and perceived lack of competence were strongly criticised, withThe Lancet labelling Halford's bulletins on the King's health as "utterly and entirely destitute of information", subsequently characterising Halford's treatment of George, which involved administering bothopium and laudanum as sedatives, as appearing to lack sense or direction.[78]
George dictated his will in May and became very devout in his final months, confessing to an archdeacon that he repented of his dissolute life, but hoped mercy would be shown to him as he had always tried to do the best for his subjects.[72] By June, he was unable to lie down, and received theSacrament on 14 June in the presence of Lady Conyngham, Halford, and a clergyman.[77] While Halford only informed theCabinet on 24 June that "the King's cough continues with considerable expectoration", he privately told his wife that "things are coming to a conclusion ... I shall be released about Monday."[79]
At about three in the morning of 26 June 1830 at Windsor Castle, George awoke and passed a bowel movement—"a largeevacuation mix'd with blood".[79] He then sent for Halford, allegedly calling to his servants "Sir Henry! Sir Henry! Fetch him; this is death!"[79] Accounts of George's final moments andlast words vary. According to Halford, following his arrival and that of SirWilliam Knighton, the King's "lips grew livid, and he dropped his head on thepage's shoulder ... I was up the stairs in five minutes, and he died but eight minutes afterwards."[79] Other accounts state the King placed his hands on his stomach and said "Surely, this must be death", or that he called out "Good God, what is this?", clasped his page's hand, and said "my boy, this is death".[80][79][81] George died at 3:15 am.[79] An autopsy conducted by his physicians revealed George had died fromupper gastrointestinal bleeding resulting from therupture of a blood vessel in his stomach.[82] A largetumour "the size of an orange" was found attached to his bladder; his heart was enlarged, hadheavily calcified valves and was surrounded by a large fat deposit.[82] The King was buried inSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 15 July.[83]
George's only legitimate child, Charlotte, had died frompost-partum complications in 1817, after delivering a stillborn son. George III's second son, Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, had died childless in 1827, so the throne passed to the third son of George III, William, Duke of Clarence, who reigned asWilliam IV.[84]
George was described as the "First Gentleman of England" on account of his style and manners.[85] He was bright, clever, and knowledgeable, but his laziness and gluttony led him to squander much of his talent.The Times wrote that he would always prefer "a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon".[86]
The Regency period saw a shift in fashion that was largely determined by George. After political opponents put atax on wig powder, he abandoned wearing a powdered wig in favour of natural hair.[87] He wore darker colours than had been previously fashionable as they helped to disguise his size, favoured pantaloons and trousers over knee breeches because they were looser, and popularised a high collar with neck cloth because it hid his double chin.[88] His visit to Scotland in 1822 led to the revival, if not the creation, of Scottishtartan dress as it is known today.[89]
During the political crisis caused by Catholic emancipation, the Duke of Wellington said that George was "the worst man he ever fell in with his whole life, the most selfish, the most false, the most ill-natured, the most entirely without one redeeming quality".[90] However, his eulogy delivered in theHouse of Lords called George "the most accomplished man of his age" and praised his knowledge and talent.[91] Wellington's true feelings were probably somewhere between these two extremes; as he said later, George was "a magnificent patron of the arts ... the most extraordinary compound of talent, wit, buffoonery, obstinacy, and good feeling—in short a medley of the most opposite qualities, with a great preponderance of good—that I ever saw in any character in my life."[91]
After George's death,The Times wrote: "There never was an individual less regretted by his fellow-creatures than this deceased king. What eye has wept for him? What heart has heaved one throb of unmercenary sorrow? ... If he ever had a friend—a devoted friend in any rank of life—we protest that the name of him or her never reached us".[92]
At birth, George was entitled to the dignities Prince of Great Britain and Ireland, Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of Cornwall, and Duke of Rothesay.[96] Under the Act of Parliament that instituted the regency, the prince's formal title as regent was "Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".[97]
George'scoat of arms as the Prince of Wales was theroyal arms (with aninescutcheon ofGules plain in the Hanoverianquarter),differenced by a label of three pointsArgent.[108] The arms included the royalcrest andsupporters but with the single archedcoronet of his rank, all charged on the shoulder with a similarlabel. His arms followed the change in the royal arms in 1801, when the Hanoverian quarter became an inescutcheon and the French quarter was dropped altogether.[109] The 1816 alteration did not affect him as it only applied to the arms of the King.[110]
As king, George's arms were those of his two kingdoms, the United Kingdom and Hanover, superimposed: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lionspassant guardant inpaleOr (for England); II Or a lionrampant within adouble tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheontierced in pall reversed (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or asemy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lüneburg), III Gules a horsecourant Argent (for Westphalia), overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or, the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown.[111]
^Röhl, J. C. G.; Warren, M.; Hunt, D. (1998).Purple Secret. Bantam Press.
^Peters, T. J.; Wilkinson, D. (2010). "King George III and porphyria: a clinical re-examination of the historical evidence".History of Psychiatry.21 (81 Pt 1):3–19.doi:10.1177/0957154X09102616.PMID21877427.S2CID22391207.
^abMay, Thomas Erskine (1896). "Chapter III: The Prerogatives of the Crown, During the Minority or Incapacity of the Sovereign".The Constitutional History of England Since the Accession of George the Third, 1760–1860 (11th ed.). London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 184–195.
^Major, Joanne; Murden, Sarah (2016),An infamous mistress: the life, loves and family of the celebrated Grace Dalrymple Elliott, Pen & Sword History,ISBN1473844835
^Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm III. ernannte Ritter"p. 17
^Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974).The Royal Heraldry of England. Heraldry Today. Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press. pp. 228–229.ISBN0-900455-25-X.
1 Not a British prince by birth, but createdPrince Consort.2 Not a British prince by birth, but created a Prince of the United Kingdom. Princes whose titles were removed and eligible people who do not use the title are shown in italics.
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