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Thegeology of Europe is varied and complex, and gives rise to the wide variety oflandscapes found across thecontinent, from theScottish Highlands to the rollingplains ofHungary. Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainousSouthern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging fromEngland in the west to theUral Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by thePyrenees and theAlps-Carpathiansmountain chain. The northern plains are delimited in the west by theScandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of theBritish Isles. The southern mountainous region is bounded by theMediterranean Sea and theBlack Sea. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are theCeltic Sea, theNorth Sea, theBaltic Sea and theBarents Sea.
Weathering mantles made up ofsaprolite are common in Europe. Saprolite composition varies fromkaolinitic andferrallitic togrus. The first were formed in the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic while the latter in the late Cenozoic.[1] Stripping of weathered rock has produced depressions occupied by numerous lakes in Finland and Sweden.[2][3]
From the standpoint ofplate tectonics, the ongoing northward drive of theAfrican Plate into theEurasian Plate in the Mediterranean basin is the most prominent aspect of the European scene today. The pressure exerted by the African plate is the overall cause of the rise of the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains.Limestones and other sediments, the ancient floor of theTethys Sea, are pushed high and now make up much of these ranges. A submarineback-arc basin develops south ofItaly, which is one of several Mediterranean mini-continental fragments caught between the two plates. This buckling of the Earth's crust forces up Italy's mountains and stimulatesactive faults andvolcanoes such asMount Etna.Iberia, another separate terrain unit, has been rotated and emplaced against the rest of Europe by the plate collision.
Moving north from the Alps and other ranges, tectonic activity largely fades away in the stable Balticcraton. One exception to this trend is ahot spot, rising from themantle underneath centralGermany, which has been responsible in geologic time for volcanoes such as theVogelsberg inHesse and currently provides heat to hot springs and lakes in the region.
Geologically, Europe is composed of aPrecambrian core – theEast European Craton, which was accreted during thePhanerozoic Eon by three major crustal blocks: theCaledonides in the west and northwest, theVariscides in the southwest, and theAlpine orogenic systems in the south. On the eastern margin, theTiman orogenic belt was added by the end of the Precambrian, while theUral orogen developed during the latePaleozoic to earlyMesozoic.[4]
The East European Craton constitutes by far the largest crustal block, making up nearly half of the continent. The Caledonian, Variscan, and Alpine blocks each account for about one-fifth to one-quarter of the continent’s area, with a significant portion now submerged beneath the sea.[4]
Europe consists of the following cratons andterranes and microcontinents:
The geologic history of Europe spans billions of years and reflects a complex interplay of tectonic processes.Archean rocks, over 2.5 billion years old, represent the oldest formations of thePrecambrian era and are exposed in the northernBaltic Shield,Ukraine, and northwesternScotland. The Baltic Shield also contains two significantProterozoic orogenic belts, which formed between 2.5 billion and 541 million years ago and extend across its central and southern regions. These features indicate that the Baltic Shield is of composite origin, consisting of remnants of several Precambrian orogenic belts.[5]
About 540 to 500 million years ago, a series of new oceans opened, and their eventual closure gave rise to theCaledonian,Hercynian, andUralian orogenic belts over hundreds of millions of years through plate-tectonic activity. The formation of these belts contributed to the assembly of the supercontinentPangea. Around 200 million years ago, Pangea began to fragment, leading to the formation of theTethys Sea. About 50 million years ago, the closure of this ocean, driven by subduction and tectonic processes, resulted in theAlpine orogeny. This event created the Alpine orogenic system, a network of mountain chains stretching from theAtlantic Ocean toTurkey. The system includes notable ranges such as thePyrenees,Baetic Cordillera,Atlas Mountains, Swiss-AustrianAlps,Apennines,Carpathians,Dinaric Alps, and theTaurus andPontic mountains. During the early stages of the Tethys Sea's development, around 180 million years ago, the Atlantic Ocean also began to open.[5]
Today, the Atlantic Ocean continues to expand along theMid-Atlantic Ridge, a tectonic boundary beneath the ocean. Iceland represents a segment of this ridge that rises above sea level. Modern tectonic activity in Europe is evident in several dynamic geological phenomena, including ongoing volcanic eruptions inIceland and at volcanoes such asMount Etna andMount Vesuvius. Additionally, seismic activity in theAegean region and the Alpine system reflects present-day stresses resulting from interactions between theEurasian andAfrican tectonic plates.[5]