| Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia | |
|---|---|
| Part ofWorld War II in Yugoslavia | |
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| Location | |
| Date | 1941–1945 |
| Target | Serbs (largelySerbs of Croatia andBosnia and Herzegovina) |
Attack type | Genocide,ethnic cleansing,massacres,deportation,forced conversion,genocidal rape |
| Deaths | Several estimates: |
| Victims | Ethnic cleansing:
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| Perpetrators | Ustaše |
| Motive | Anti-Serb sentiment,[7]Croatian irredentism,[8] anti-Yugoslavism,[9]Croatisation[10] |
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TheGenocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian:Genocid nad Srbima u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj /Геноцид над Србима у Независној Држави Хрватској) was the systematic persecution andextermination ofSerbs committed duringWorld War II by thefascistUstaše regime in theNazi Germanpuppet state known as theIndependent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian:Nezavisna Država Hrvatska /Независна Држава Хрватска, NDH) between 1941 and 1945. It was carried out through executions indeath camps, as well as throughmass murder,ethnic cleansing,deportations,forced conversions, andwar rape. This genocide was simultaneously carried out withthe Holocaust in the NDH as well asthe genocide of Roma, by combiningNazi racial policies with the ultimate goal of creating an ethnically pureGreater Croatia.
The ideological foundation of the Ustaše movement reaches back to the 19th century. SeveralCroatian nationalists and intellectuals established theories about Serbs as aninferior race. TheWorld War I legacy, as well as the opposition of a group of nationalists to theunification into a common state ofSouth Slavs, influenced ethnic tensions in the newly formedKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Kingdom of Yugoslavia). The6 January Dictatorship and the lateranti-Croat policies of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s fueled the rise of nationalist and far-right movements. This culminated in the rise of the Ustaše, anultranationalist,terrorist organization, founded byAnte Pavelić. The movement was financially and ideologically supported byBenito Mussolini, and it was also involved in the assassination of KingAlexander I.
Following theAxisinvasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, a Germanpuppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established, comprising most of modern-dayCroatia andBosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of modern-daySerbia andSlovenia, ruled by the Ustaše. The Ustaše's goal was to create anethnically homogeneous Greater Croatia by eliminating all non-Croats, with the Serbs being the primary target butJews,Roma and political dissidents were also targeted for elimination. Large scale massacres were committed and concentration camps were built, the largest one was theJasenovac, which was notorious for its high mortality rate and the barbaric practices which occurred in it. Furthermore, the NDH was the only Axispuppet state to establishconcentration camps specifically for children. The regime systematically murdered approximately 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs. 300,000 Serbs were further expelled and at least 200,000 more Serbs were forcibly converted, most of whom de-converted following the war. Proportional to the population, the NDH was one of the most lethal European regimes.
Mile Budak and other NDH high officials weretried and convicted ofwar crimes by thecommunist authorities. Concentration campcommandants such asLjubo Miloš andMiroslav Filipović were captured and executed, whileAloysius Stepinac was found guilty of forced conversion. Many othersescaped, including the supreme leader Ante Pavelić, most toLatin America. The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war, because thepost-war Yugoslav government did not encourage independent scholars out of concern that ethnic tensions would destabilize the newcommunist regime. Nowadays, оn22 April, Serbia marks thepublic holiday dedicated to the victims of genocide and fascism, while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site.
The ideological foundation of theUstaše movement reaches back to the 19th century whenAnte Starčević established theParty of Rights,[11] as well as whenJosip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from it and formed his own Pure Party of Rights.[12] Starčević was a major ideological influence on theCroatian nationalism of the Ustaše.[13][14] He was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti-Habsburg, as Starčević saw the main Croatian enemy in the Habsburg Monarchy, andanti-Serb.[13] He envisioned the creation of aGreater Croatia that would include territories inhabited byBosniaks,Serbs, andSlovenes, considering Bosniaks and Serbs to beCroats who had been converted toIslam andEastern Orthodox Christianity.[13] In his demonization of the Serbs he claimed "how the Serbs today are dangerous for their ideas and their racial composition, how a bent for conspiracies, revolutions and coups is in their blood."[15] Starčević called the Serbs an "unclean race", a "nomadic people" and "a race of slaves, the most loathsome beasts", while the co-founder of his party,Eugen Kvaternik, denied the existence ofSerbs in Croatia, seeing their political consciousness as a threat.[16][17][18][19]Milovan Đilas cites Starčević as the "father ofracism" and "ideological father" of the Ustaše, while some Ustaše ideologues have linked Starčević's racial ideas toAdolf Hitler'sracial ideology.[20][21]
Frank's party embraced Starčević's position that Serbs were an obstacle to Croatian political and territorial ambitions, and the aggressive anti-Serb attitudes became one of the main characteristics of the party.[22][23][19][24] The followers of the ultranationalist Pure Party of Right were known as theFrankists (Frankovci) and they would become the main pool of members of the subsequent Ustaše movement.[25][17][19][24] Following the defeat of theCentral Powers inWorld War I and the collapse ofAustria-Hungarian Empire, theprovisional state was formed on the southern territories of the Empire which joined theAllies-associateKingdom of Serbia to form theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as Yugoslavia), ruled by the SerbianKarađorđević dynasty. Historian John Paul Newman explained that the influence of the Frankists, as well as the legacy of World War I, had an impact on the Ustaše ideology and their future genocidal means.[24][26] Many war veterans had fought at various ranks and on various fronts on both the 'victorious' and 'defeated' sides of the war.[24] Serbia sufferedthe biggest casualty rate in the world, while Croats fought in the Austro-Hungarian army and two of them served as military governors ofBosnia andoccupied Serbia.[27][26] They both endorsed Austria–Hungary's denationalizing plans in Serb-populated lands and supported the idea of incorporating a tamed Serbia into the Empire.[26] Newman stated that Austro-Hungarian officers' "unfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right, the Ustaše".[26] The Frankists blamedSerbian nationalists for the defeat of Austria-Hungary and opposed the creation of Yugoslavia, which was identified by them as a cover forGreater Serbia.[24] Мass Croatian national consciousness appeared after the establishment of a common state of South Slavs and it was directed against the new Kingdom, more precisely against Serbian predominance within it.[28]
Early 20th century Croatian intellectualsIvo Pilar,Ćiro Truhelka andMilan Šufflay influenced the Ustaše concept of nation and racial identity, as well as the theory of Serbs as an inferior race.[29][30][31] Pilar, historian, politician and lawyer, placed great emphasis onracial determinism arguing that Croats had been defined by the "Nordic-Aryan" racial and cultural heritage, while Serbs had "interbred" with the "Balkan-RomanicVlachs".[32] Truhelka, archeologist and historian, claimed that Bosnian Muslims were ethnic Croats, who, according to him, belonged to theracially superior Nordic race. On the other hand, Serbs belonged to the "degenerate race" of the Vlachs.[33][30] The Ustaše promoted the theories of historian and politician Šufflay, who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been "one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries", which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918.[34]
The outburst of Croatian nationalism after 1918 was one of the main threats for Yugoslavia's stability.[28] During the 1920s,Ante Pavelić, lawyer, politician and one of the Frankists, emerged as a leading spokesman for Croatian independence.[19] In 1927, he secretly contactedBenito Mussolini, dictator ofItaly and founder offascism, and presented hisseparatist ideas to him.[35] Pavelić proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats.[35] In that period, Mussolini was interested in Balkans with the aim of isolating Yugoslavia, by strengthening Italian influence on the east coast of theAdriatic Sea.[36] British historianRory Yeomans claims that there are indication that Pavelić had been considering the formation of some kind of nationalist insurgency group as early as 1928.[37]
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In June 1928,Stjepan Radić, the leader of the largest and most popular Croatian partyCroatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska seljačka stranka, HSS) was mortally wounded in theparliamentary chamber byPuniša Račić, aMontenegrin Serb leader, formerChetnik member and deputy of the ruling SerbPeople's Radical Party. Račić also shot two other HSS deputies dead and wounded two more.[38][24][39][40] The killings provoked violent student protests inZagreb.[38] Trying to suppress the conflict between Croatian and Serbian political parties, KingAlexander I proclaimed adictatorship with the aim of establishing the "integralYugoslavism" and a singleYugoslav nation.[41][25][42][43] The introduction of the royal dictatorship brought separatist forces to the fore, especially among the Croats andMacedonians.[44][28] TheUstaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement (Croatian:Ustaša – Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret) emerged as the most extreme movement of these.[45] The Ustaše was created in late 1929 or early 1930 among radical and militant student and youth groups, which existed from the late 1920s.[38] Precisely, the movement was founded by journalistGustav Perčec and Ante Pavelić.[38] They were driven by a deep hatred of Serbs and Serbdom and claimed that, "Croats and Serbs were separated by an unbridgeable cultural gulf" which prevented them from ever living alongside each other.[34] Pavelić accused the Belgrade government of propagating "a barbarian culture andGypsy civilization", claiming they were spreading "atheism and bestial mentality in divine Croatia".[46] Supporters of the Ustaše planned genocide years before World War II, for example one of Pavelić's main ideologues,Mijo Babić, wrote in 1932 that the Ustaše "will cleanse and cut whatever is rotten from the healthy body of the Croatian people".[47] In 1933, the Ustaše presented "The Seventeen Principles" that formed the official ideology of the movement. The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation, promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by "blood" would be excluded from political life.[48][49]
In order to explain what they saw as a "terror machine", and regularly referred to as "some excesses" by individuals, the Ustaše cited, among other things, policies of the inter-war Yugoslav government which they described as Serbianhegemony "that cost the lives of thousand Croats".[50] HistorianJozo Tomasevich explains that that argument is not true, claiming that between December 1918 and April 1941 about 280 Croats were killed for political reasons, and that no specific motive for the killings could be identified, as they may also be linked to clashes during the agrarian reform.[51] Moreover, he stated that Serbs too were denied civil and political rights during the royal dictatorship.[40] However, Tomasevich explains that the anti-Croatian policies of the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s, as well as, the shooting of the HSS deputies by Radić were largely responsible for the creation, growth and nature of Croatian nationalist forces.[40] This culminated in the Ustaše movement and ultimately its anti-Serbian policies in World War II, which was totally out of proportions to earlier anti-Croatian measures, in nature and extent.[40] Yeomans explains that Ustaše officials constantly emphasized crimes against Croats by the Yugoslav government and security forces, although many of them were imagined, though some of them real, as justification for their envisioned eradication of the Serbs.[52] Political scientist Tamara Pavasović Trošt, commenting on historiography and textbooks, listed the claims that terror against Serbs arose as a result of "their previous hegemony" as an example of therelativisation of Ustaše crimes.[53] HistorianAristotle Kallis explained that anti-Serb prejudices were a "chimera" which emerged through living together in Yugoslavia with continuity with previous stereotypes.[25]
The Ustaše functioned as aterrorist organization as well.[54] The first Ustaše center was established inVienna, where brisk anti-Yugoslav propaganda soon developed and agents were prepared for terrorist actions.[55] They organized the so-calledVelebit uprising in 1932, assaulting a police station in the village of Brušani inLika.[56] In 1934, the Ustaše cooperated with Bulgarian, Hungarian and Italian right-wing extremists to assassinate King Alexander while he visited the French city ofMarseille.[45] Pavelić's fascist tendencies were apparent.[19] The Ustaše movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini.[57] During the intensification of ties withNazi Germany in the 1930s, Pavelić's concept of the Croatian nation became increasingly race-oriented.[46][58][59]
In April 1941, theKingdom of Yugoslavia wasinvaded by the Axis powers. After Nazi forces entered Zagreb on 10 April 1941, Pavelić's closest associateSlavko Kvaternik, proclaimed the formation of theIndependent State of Croatia (NDH) on a Radio Zagreb broadcast. Meanwhile, Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše volunteers left their camps in Italy and travelled to Zagreb, where Pavelić declared a new government on 16 April 1941.[60] He accorded himself the title of "Poglavnik" (German:Führer, English:Chief leader). The NDH combined most of modern Croatia, all of modernBosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modernSerbia into an "Italian-German quasi-protectorate".[61] Serbs made up about 30% of the NDH population.[62] The NDH was never fully sovereign, but it was apuppet state that enjoyed the greatest autonomy than any other regime inGerman-occupied Europe.[59] The Independent State of Croatia was declared to be on Croatian "ethnic and historical territory".[63]
This country can only be a Croatian country, and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs, who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity.
— Milovan Žanić, the minister of theNDH government, on 2 May 1941.[64]
The Ustaše became obsessed with creating anethnically pure state.[65] As outlined by Ustaše ministersMile Budak, Mirko Puk and Milovan Žanić, the strategy to achieve an ethnically pure Croatia was that:[66][67]
According to historianIvo Goldstein, this formula was never published but it is undeniable that the Ustaše applied it towards Serbs.[68]
The Ustaše movement received limited support from ordinary Croats.[69][70] In May 1941, the Ustaše had about 100,000 members who took the oath.[71][72][73] SinceVladko Maček reluctantly called on the supporters of the Croatian Peasant Party to respect and co-operate with the new regime of Ante Pavelić, he was able to use the apparatus of the party and most of the officials from the formerCroatian Banovina.[74][75] Initially, Croatian soldiers who had previously served in the Austro-Hungarian army held the highest positions in the NDH armed forces.[76]
Historian Irina Ognyanova stated that the similarities between the NDH and the Third Reich included the assumption that terror and genocide were necessary for the preservation of the state.[77]Viktor Gutić made several speeches in early summer 1941, calling Serbs "former enemies" and "unwanted elements" to be cleansed and destroyed, and also threatened Croats who did not support their cause.[78] Much of the ideology of the Ustaše was based on Nazi racial theory. Like the Nazis, the Ustaše deemed Jews, Romani, and Slavs to be sub-humans (Untermensch). They endorsed the claims from German racial theorists that Croats were not Slavs but a Germanic race. Their genocides against Serbs, Jews, and Romani were thus expressions ofNazi racial ideology.[79]Adolf Hitler supported Pavelić in order to punish the Serbs.[80] HistorianMichael Phayer explained that the Nazis' decisionto kill all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941 in late June which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Nazi killing of Jews.[81]Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes against Serbs in the NDH were the "earliest total genocide to be attempted during the World War II".[81]
Andrija Artuković, the Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia, signed into law a number of racial laws.[82] On 30 April 1941, the government adopted "the legal order of races" and "the legal order of the protection of Atyan blood and the honor of Croatian people".[82] Croats and about 750,000 Bosnian Muslims, whose support was needed against the Serbs, were proclaimed Aryans.[20]Donald Bloxham andRobert Gerwarth concluded that Serbs were primary target of racial laws and murders.[83] The Ustaše introduced the laws to strip Serbs of their citizenship, livelihoods, and possessions.[48] Similar to Jews in the Third Reich, Serbs were forced to wear armbands bearing the letter "P", forPravoslavac (Orthodox).[48][19] (Likewise, Jews were forced to wear the armband with the letter "Ž", fortŽidov (Jew).[84] Ustaše writers adopteddehumanizing rhetoric.[85][86] In 1941, the usage of theCyrillic script was banned,[87] and in June 1941 began the elimination of "Eastern" (Serbian) words from Croatian, as well as the shutting down of Serbian schools.[88] Ante Pavelić ordered, through the "Croatian state office for language", the creation of new words from old roots, and purged many Serbian words.[89]
Whereas the Ustaše persecution of Jews and Roma was systematic and represented an implementation of Nazi policies, their persecution of Serbs was rooted in a stronger "home grown" form of hatred, implemented with more variance due to the larger Serb population found across rural areas. This was done despite the fact it would degrade support for the regime, fueled Serb rebellion and jeopardized the stability of the NDH.[90] The level of violence enacted against Serb communities often depended more on the intercommunal relations and inclinations of the respective local Ustaše warlords than a well-structured policy.[90]
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The Ustaše set up temporary concentration camps in the spring of 1941 and laid the groundwork for a network of permanent camps in autumn.[6] The creation of concentration camps and extermination campaign of Serbs had been planned by the Ustaše leadership long before 1941.[52] In Ustaše state exhibits in Zagreb, the camps were portrayed as productive and "peaceful work camps", with photographs of smiling inmates.[91]
Serbs, Jews and Romani were arrested and sent to concentration camps such asJasenovac,Stara Gradiška,Gospić andJadovno. There were 22–26 camps in NDH in total.[92] HistorianJozo Tomasevich described that the Jadovno concentration camp itself acted as a "way station" en route to pits located on MountVelebit, where inmates were executed and dumped.[93]
Approximately 90,000 of the Serb victims of genocide perished in concentration camps; the rest were killed in "direct terror", i.e.Punitive expeditions and razing of villages, pogroms, massacres and sporadic executions which mainly occurred between 1941 and 1942.[90]
The largest and most notorious camp was the Jasenovac-Stara Gradiška complex,[6] the largest extermination camp in the Balkans.[94] An estimated 100,000 inmates perished there, most Serbs.[95] Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, the commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, announced the great "efficiency" of the Jasenovac camp at a ceremony on 9 October 1942, and also boasted: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."[96]
Bounded by rivers and two barbed-wire fences making escape unlikely, the Jasenovac camp was divided into five camps, the first two closed in December 1941, while the rest were active until the end of the war. Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V) held women and children. The Ciglana (brickyards, Jasenovac III) camp, the main killing ground and essentially a death camp, had 88% mortality rate, higher thanAuschwitz's 84.6%.[97] A former brickyard, a furnace was engineered into a crematorium, with witness testimony of some, including children, beingburnt alive and stench of human flesh spreading in the camp.[98] Luburić had a gas chamber built at Jasenovac V, where a considerable number of inmates were killed during a three-month experiment withsulfur dioxide andZyklon B, but this method was abandoned due to poor construction.[99] Still, that method was unnecessary, as most inmates perished from starvation, disease (especiallytyphus), assaults with mallets, maces, axes, poison and knives.[99] Thesrbosjek ("Serb-cutter") was a glove with an attached curved blade designed to cut throats.[99] Large groups of people were regularly executed upon arrival outside camps and thrown into the river.[99] Unlike German-run camps, Jasenovac specialized in brutal one-on-one violence, such as guards attacking barracks with weapons and throwing the bodies in the trenches.[99] Some historians use a sentence from German sources: "Even German officers andSS men lost their cool when they saw (Ustaše) ways and methods."[100]
The infamous camp commanderFilipović, dubbedfra Sotona ("brother Satan") and the "personification of evil", on one occasion drowned Serb women and children by flooding a cellar.[99] Filipović and other camp commanders (such asDinko Šakić and his wife Nada Šakić, the sister of Maks Luburić), used ingenious torture.[99] There were throat-cutting contests of Serbs, in which prison guards made bets among themselves as to who could slaughter the most inmates. It was reported that guard and former Franciscan priestPetar Brzica won a contest on 29 August 1942 after cutting the throats of 1,360 inmates.[101] Inmates were tied and hit over the head with mallets and half-alive hung in groups by the Granik ramp crane, their intestines and necks slashed, then dropped into the river.[102] When the Partisans and Allies closed in at the end of the war, the Ustaše began mass liquidations at Jasenovac, marching women and children to death, and shooting most of the remaining male inmates, then torched buildings and documents before fleeing.[103] Many prisoners were victims ofrape,sexual mutilation anddisembowelment, while inducedcannibalism amongst the inmates also took place.[104][105][106][107][108] Some survivors testified aboutdrinking blood from the slashed throats of the victims andsoap making from human corpses.[109][106][108][110]
The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis satellite to have erected camps specifically for children.[6] Special camps for children were those atSisak,Đakovo andJastrebarsko,[111] while Stara Gradiška held thousands of children and women.[97] Historian Tomislav Dulić explained that the systematic murder of infants and children, who could not pose a threat to the state, serves as one important illustration of the genocidal character of Ustaša mass killing.[112]
The Holocaust and genocide survivors, includingBožo Švarc, testified that Ustaše tore off the children's hands, as well as, "apply a liquid to children's mouths with brushes", which caused the children to scream and later die.[48] The Sisak camp commander, aphysicianAntun Najžer, was dubbed the "CroatianMengele" by survivors.[113]
Diana Budisavljević, a humanitarian of Austrian descent, carried out rescue operations and saved more than 15,000 children from Ustaše camps.[114][115]
A large number of massacres were committed by the NDH armed forces,Croatian Home Guard (Domobrani) andUstaše Militia.
The Ustaše Militia was organised in 1941 into five (later 15) 700-man battalions, two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion (later Brigade). They were predominantly recruited among the uneducated population and working class.
Besides ethnic Croats, the militia also contained Muslims where they accounted for an estimated 30% of the membership.[116]
Violence against Serbs began in April 1941 and was initially limited in scope, primarily targeting Serbintelligentsia. By July however, the violence became "indiscriminate, widespread and systematic". Massacres of Serbs were focused in mixed areas with large Serb populations for necessity and efficiency.[117]
In the summer of 1941, Ustaše militias and death squads burnt villages and killed thousands of civilian Serbs in the country-side in sadistic ways with various weapons and tools. Men, women, children were hacked to death, thrown alive into pits and down ravines, or set on fire in churches.[78] Hardly ever were firearms used, more commonly, knived axes and such were utilized. Serb victims were dismembered, their ears and tongues cut off and eyes gouged out.[118] Some Serb villages near Srebrenica and Ozren were wholly massacred while children were found impaled by stakes in villages between Vlasenica and Kladanj.[119] The Ustaše cruelty and sadism shocked even Nazi commanders.[120] AGestapo report to Reichsführer SSHeinrich Himmler, dated 17 February 1942, stated:
Increased activity of the bands [of rebels] is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustaše units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The Ustaše committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.[121]
The Ustaše's preference for cold weapons in carrying out their deeds was partly a result of the shortage of ammunition and firearms in the early course of the war, but also demonstrated the importance the regime placed on the cult of violence and personal slaughter, in particular through the usage of the knife.[122]
Charles King emphasized that concentration camps are losing their central place in Holocaust and genocide research because a large proportion of victims perished in mass executions, ravines and pits.[123] He explained that the actions of the German allies, including the Croatian one, and the town- and village-level elimination of minorities also played a significant role.[123]
On 28 April 1941, approximately 184–196 Serbs fromBjelovar weresummarily executed, after arrest orders by Kvaternik. It was the first act of mass murder committed by the Ustaše upon coming to power, and presaged the wider campaign of genocide against Serbs in the NDH that lasted until the end of the war. A few days following the massacre of Bjelovar Serbs, the Ustaše rounded up 331 Serbs in the village of Otočac. The victims were forced to dig their own graves before being hacked to death with axes. Among the victims was the local Orthodox priest and his son. The former was made to recite prayers for the dying as his son was killed. The priest was then tortured, his hair and beard was pulled out, eyes gouged out before he was skinned alive.[124]
On 24–25 July 1941, the Ustaše militia captured the village of Banski Grabovac in theBanija region and murdered the entire Serb population of 1,100 peasants. On 24 July, over 800 Serb civilians were killed in the village of Vlahović.[117]
Between 29 June and 7 July 1941, 280 Serbs were killed and thrown into pits nearKostajnica.[125] Large scale massacres took place inStaro Selo Topusko, including in the village ofPecka with 250 victims,[126] andPerna where 427 old men and children were killed.[127] A large number were also killed inVojišnica[128] andVrginmost.[129] About 60% ofSadilovac residents lost their lives during the war.[130] More than 400 Serbs were killed in their homes, including 185 children.[130] On 17 April 1942, 99 Serbs were burned alive in the village ofKolarić, nearVojnić.[131] A total of 3,849 inhabitants of the town of Vojnić were massacred during the war, out of a total of approximately 5000 inhabitants.[127] That same month, a total of 759 women, children and elderly Serbs were massacred near the village ofKrstinja.[127] On 31 July 1942, in the Sadilovac church the Ustaše under Milan Mesić's command massacred more than 580 inhabitants of the surrounding villages, including about 270 children.[132] At various dates, 2,019 primarily women and children were killed in the village ofRakovica.[127]
On 11 or 12 May 1941, 260–300 Serbs were herded into an Orthodox church and shot, after which it was set on fire. The idea for this massacre reportedly came from Mirko Puk, who was the Minister of Justice for the NDH.[133] On 10 May, Ivica Šarić, a specialist for such operations traveled to the town ofGlina to meet with local Ustaše leadership where they drew up a list of names of all the Serbs between sixteen and sixty years of age to be arrested.[134] After much discussion, they decided that all of the arrested should be killed.[135] Many of the town's Serbs heard rumors that something bad was in store for them but the vast majority did not flee. On the night of 11 May, mass arrests of male Serbs over the age of sixteen began.[135] The Ustaše then herded the group into an Orthodox Church and demanded that they be given documents proving the Serbs had all converted to Catholicism. Serbs who did not possess conversion certificates were locked inside and massacred.[124] The church was then set on fire, leaving the bodies to burn as Ustaše stood outside to shoot any survivors attempting to escape the flames.[136]
A similar massacre of Serbs occurred on 30 July 1941. 700 Serbs were gathered into a church under the premise that they would be converted. Victims were killed by having their throats cut or by having their heads smashed in with rifle butts. Between 500 and 2000 other Serbs were later massacred in neighbouring villages byVjekoslav "Maks" Luburić's forces, continuing until 3 August. In these massacres specifically males 16 years and older were killed.[137] Only one of the victims, Ljubo Jednak, survived by playing dead.
The district ofGospić experienced the first large-scale massacres which occurred in the Lika region, as some 3,000 Serb civilians were killed between late July and early August 1941.[117] Ustaše officials reported an emergingSerb rebellion due to massacres. In late July 1941, a detachment of the Croatian military in Gospić noted that the local insurgents were Serb peasants who had fled to the woods "purely as a reaction to the cleansing [operations] against them by our Ustaša formations". Following a sabotage of railway tracks in the district of Vojnić that was attributed to local communists on 27 July 1941, the Ustaše began a "cleansing" operation of indiscriminate pillage and killing of civilians, including the elderly and children.[117]
On 6 August 1941, the Ustaše killed and burned more than 280 villagers inMlakva, including 191 children.[138] Between June and August 1941, about 890 Serbs fromLičko Petrovo Selo andMelinovac were killed and thrown in the so-called Delić pit.[139]
During the war, the Ustaše massacred more than 900 Serbs inDivoselo, more than 500 inSmiljan, as well as more than 400 in Široka Kula near Gospić.[140] On 2 August 1941, the Ustaše trapped about 120 children and women and 50 men who tried to escape from Divoselo. After a few days of imprisonment, where women were raped, they were stabbed in groups and thrown into the pits.[141]
On 21 December 1941, approximately 880 Serbs fromDugo Selo Lasinjsko andPrkos Lasinjski were killed in the Brezje forest.[142] On theSerbian New Year, 14 January 1942,the biggest slaughter of the civilians fromSlavonia started. Villages were burned, and about 350 people were deported toVoćin and executed.[143]
In August 1942, following the joint military anti-partisan operation in theSyrmia by the Ustaše and GermanWehrmacht, it turned into a massacre by the Ustaše militia that left up to 7,000 Serbs dead.[144] Among those killed was the prominent painterSava Šumanović, who was arrested along with 150 residents ofŠid, and then tortured by having his arms cut off.[145]
In August 1941 on the Eastern OrthodoxElijah's holy day, who is thepatron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina, between 2,800 and 5,500 Serbs fromSanski Most and the surrounding area were killed and thrown into pits which had been dug by victims themselves.[146]
During the war, the NDH armed forces killed over 7,000 Serbs in the municipality ofKozarska Dubica, while the municipality lost more than half of its pre-war population.[147] The biggest massacre was committed by theCroatian Home Guard in January 1942, when the villageDraksenić was burned and more than 200 were people killed.[148]
In February 1942, the Ustaše underMiroslav Filipović's commandmassacred 2,300 adults and 550 children in Serb-populated villagesDrakulić,Motike andŠargovac.[149] The children were chosen as the first victims and their body parts were cut off.[149]
From July to September 1941, thousands of Serbs were massacred along with some Jews and Roma victims atGaravice, an extermination location nearBihać. On the night of 17 June 1941, Ustaše began the mass killing of previously captured Serbs, who were brought by trucks from the surrounding towns to Garavice.[150] The bodies of the victims were thrown intomass graves. A large amount of blood contaminated the local water supply.[151]
On 9 May 1941, approximately 400 Serbs were rounded up from several villages andexecuted in a pit behind a school in the village ofBlagaj.[152] On 31 May, between 120 and 270 Serbs were rounded up nearTrebinje and executed.[153]
On 2 June 1941, Ustaše authorities led by Herman Tongl in the municipality ofGacko issued an order to the Serb inhabitants of the villages ofKorita andZagradci demanding that all males above the age of fifteen report to a building in the village ofStepen. Once there, they were imprisoned for two days and on 4 June, the prisoners who numbered about 170 were tied together in groups of two or three, loaded onto a lorry and driven to the Golubnjača limestone pit nearKobilja Glava where they were shot, beaten with poles, cudgels, axes and picks and thrown into the pit.[154] On June 22, under the ruse that Serbs were planning to launch an offensive prior to theVidovdan holiday, Tongl enlisted locals to massacre Serb farmers in four districts. The victims included women who were raped as well as children; some were thrown into pits while others were taken near theNeretva river and executed there.[155] On June 23, 80 people from three villages near Gacko were killed.[156]
On 2 June 1941, the Ustaše killed 140 peasants near the town ofLjubinje and on 23 June killed an additional 160. In the municipality ofStolac, nearly 260 were killed during the course of two days.[156]
In theLivno Field area, the Ustaše killed over 1,200 Serbs including 370 children.[157] In the Koprivnica Forest nearLivno, around 300 citizen were tortured and killed.[157] About 300 children, women and the elderly were killed and thrown into the Ravni Dolac pit inDonji Rujani.[158]
From 4–6 August 1941,650 women and children killed by being thrown into the Golubinka pit nearŠurmanci.[48][159] Also,hand grenades were thrown at dead bodies.[159] Some 4000 Serbs were later massacred in neighbouring places during that summer.[48]
Some 70-200 Serbsmassacred by Muslim Ustaše forces inRašića Gaj,Vlasenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 22 June and 20 July 1941, after raping women and girls.[160] Many Serbs were executed by Ustaše along theDrina Valley for a months, especially nearVišegrad.[48]Jure Francetić'sBlack Legion killed thousands of defenceless Bosnian Serb civilians and threw their bodies into the Drina river.[161] In 1942, about 6,000 Serbs were killed in Stari Brod nearRogatica andMiloševići.[162][163]
During the summer of 1941, Ustaše militia periodically interned and executed groups ofSarajevo Serbs.[164] In August 1941, they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies, mostly church officials and members of the intelligentsia, and executed them or deported them to concentration camps.[164] The Ustaše killed at least 323 people in theVilla Luburić, a slaughter house and place for torturing and imprisoning Serbs, Jews and political dissidents.[165]
Expulsions was one of the pillar of the Ustaše plan to create a pure Croat state.[48] The first to be forced to leave were war veterans from World War IMacedonian front who lived in Slavonia and Syrmia.[48][166] By mid-1941, 5,000 Serbs had been expelled toGerman-occupied Serbia.[48] The general plan was to have prominent people deported first, so their property could be nationalized and the remaining Serbs could then be more easily manipulated. By the end of September 1941, about half of theSerbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.[167]
TheDrina is the border between the East and West. God's Providence placed us to defend our border, which our allies are well aware and value, because for centuries we have proven that we are good frontiersmen.[48]
— Mile Budak, the minister of theNDH government, August 1941.
Advocates of expulsion presented it as a necessary measure for the creation of a socially functionalnation state, and also rationalized these plans by comparing it with the1923 population exchange betweenGreece andTurkey.[168] The Ustaše set up holding camps, with the aim of gathering a large number of people and deporting them.[48] The NDH government also formedthe Office of Colonization to resettle Croats on reclaimed land.[48] During the summer of 1941, the expulsions were carried out with the significant participation of the local population.[169] Many representatives of local elites, including Bosnian Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germans in Slavonia and Syrmia, played an active role in the expulsion.[170]
An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the NDH to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.[2] By the end of July 1941 according to the German authorities in Serbia, 180,000 Serbs defected from the NDH to Serbia and by the end of September that number exceeded 200,000. In that same period 14,733 persons were legally relocated from the NDH to Serbia.[166] In turn, the NDH had to accept more than 200,000Slovenian refugees who were forcefully evicted from their homes as part of the German plan of annexing parts of the Slovenian territories. In October 1941, organized migration was stopped because the German authorities in Serbia forbid further immigration of Serbs. According to documentation of the Commissariat for Refugees and Immigrants in Belgrade, in 1942 and 1943 illegal departures of individuals from NDH to Serbia still existed, numbering an estimated 200,000 though these figures are incomplete.[166]
The Ustaše viewed religion and nationality as being closely linked; whileRoman Catholicism andIslam (Bosnian Muslims were viewed as Croats) were recognized as Croatian national religions,Eastern Orthodoxy was deemed inherently incompatible with the Croatian state project.[34] They saw Orthodoxy as hostile because it was identified as Serb[171] (prior to 1920, the Orthodox dioceses in most of Croatian lands belonged to an independentPatriarchate of Karlovci). To a certain extent, the campaign of terror could be seen as similarCrusades of medieval ages; a religious crusade.[84] On 3 May 1941, a law was passed on religious conversions, pressuring Serbs to convert to Catholicism and thereby adopt Croat identity.[34] This was made on the eve of Pavelić's meeting with PopePius XII inRome.[172] TheCatholic Church in Croatia, headed by archbishopAloysius Stepinac, greeted it and adopted it into the Church's internal law.[172] The term "Serbian Orthodox" was banned in mid-May as being incompatible with state order, and the term "Greek-Eastern faith" was used in its place.[173] By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.[167]
To erase all history of Serbs and the Orthodox religion, churches (some of which dated to 1200s and 1300s) were razed to the ground or denigrated by using them as stables or barns etc.[118]
The Ustaša movement is based on religion. Therefore, our acts stem from our devotion to religion and the Roman Catholic church.
— the chief Ustaše ideologistMile Budak, 13 July 1941.[174]
Ustaše propaganda legitimized the persecution as being partially based on the historicCatholic–Orthodox struggle for domination in Europe and Catholic intolerance towards the "schismatics".[171] Following thestart of Serb insurgency (July 1941), the State Directorate for Regeneration in the autumn of 1941 launched a program aimed at the mass forcedconversion of the Serbs.[171] Already in the summer, the Ustaše had closed or destroyed most of the Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries and deported, imprisoned or murdered Orthodox priests and bishops.[171] Over 150 Serbian Orthodox priests were also killed between May and December 1941.[175] The conversions were meant to Croatianize and permanently destroy theSerbian Orthodox Church.[171] Roman Catholic priestKrunoslav Draganović argued that many Catholics were converted to Orthodoxy during the 16th and 17th centuries, which was later used as the basis for the Ustaše conversion program.[176][177]
The conversion policy had a particular aspect: only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion, since illiterate peasants were presumed to have less of a Serb/Orthodox identity. People with secondary education etc. (and especially Orthodox clergy) were not eligible. Educated people were singled out for expulsion or extermination, states Robert B. McCormick.[178]
The Vatican was not opposed to the forced conversions. On 6 February 1942, Pope Pius XII privately received 206 Ustaše members in uniforms and blessed them, symbolically supporting their actions.[179] On 8 February 1942, the envoy to the Holy See,Nikola Rušinović, said that 'the Holy See rejoiced' at forced conversions.[180] In a 21 February 1942 letter to CardinalLuigi Maglione, the Holy See'ssecretary encouraged the Croatian bishops to speed up the conversions, and he also stated that the term "Orthodox" should be replaced with the terms "apostates or schismatics".[181] Many fanatical Catholic priests joined the Ustaše, blessed and supported their work, and participated in killings and conversions.[182]
In 1941–1942,[183] some 200,000[184] or 240,000[185]–250,000[186] Serbs were converted to Roman Catholicism, although most of them only practiced it temporarily.[184] Converts would sometimes be killed anyway, often in the same churches where they were re-baptized.[184] 85% of the Serbian Orthodox clergy was killed or expelled.[187] In Lika, Kordun and Banija alone, 172 Serbian Orthodox churches were closed, destroyed, or plundered.[173]
TheEncyclopedia of the Holocaust described that the bishops' conference that met in Zagreb in November 1941 was not prepared to denounce the forced conversion of Serbs that had taken place in the summer of 1941, let alone condemn the persecution and murder of Serbs and Jews.[188] Many Catholic priests in Croatia approved of and supported the Ustaše's large scale attacks on the Serbian Orthodox Church,[189] and the Catholic hierarchy did not issue any condemnation of the crimes, either publicly or privately.[190] The Croatian Catholic Church and the Vatican viewed the Ustaše's policies against the Serbs as being advantageous to Roman Catholicism.[191]
Alongside the Catholic Church and Islam, another religious community was officially recognised by the NDH government, namely theGreek Catholic Church.[192] The majority of those converted came under the auspices of the Greek Catholic Church.[193] Established in Croatia in the 17th century and full communion with Rome, this Church originated from Orthodox Serbs embracingUniatism, which allowed them to preserve theByzantine Rite while adopting some aspects of theCatholic doctrine. Over time, the identity of the converts shifted from Serbian to Croatian.[194] Although in the early days of the NDH, this religious community received the same financial support as the Catholic Church, in particular for the upkeep of its religious structures, the Ustaše authorities nevertheless had a somewhat hostile view of Greek Catholic proselytism. However, this changed abruptly after a mass uprising of Serbs in reaction to their persecution, which led the NDH to authorise their conversion to Greek Catholicism.[195] From the end of 1941 onwards, Greek Catholics were allowed to take over Orthodox churches and create new parishes, the right to convert Orthodox Serbs to Uniatism being granted by Pope Pius XII himself. As a result, although Uniate converts and clergy were occasionally persecuted by Ustaše commanders, the Greek Catholic Church of Croatia benefited from the repression of Serbs at least as much as the Catholic Church and supported the NDH regime in the same way.[196]
A large number of Serbs was forced to convert to Islam, mainly in theBosanska Krajina region.[193]
After the matter of forced conversion had become extremely controversial,[34] the NDH government on 3 April 1942 adopted a law that established theCroatian Eastern Orthodox Church.[197] This was done in order to replace the institutions of the Serbian Orthodox Church.[198] According to the "Statute concerning the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church" that was approved on 5 June, the Church was "indivisible in its unity andautocephalous".[197] In June,White Russian émigréGermogen Maximov, an archbishop of theRussian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, was enthroned as its primate.[199] The establishment of the Church was done in order to try and pacify the state as well as toCroatisize the remaining Serb population once the Ustaše realized that the complete eradication of Serbs in the NDH was unattainable. Persecution of Serbs continued however, but was less intense.[200]
Bishops of theSerbian Orthodox Church dioceses in the Independent State of Croatia were targeted during religious persecutions.[201] On 5 May 1941, the Ustaše tortured and killedPlaton Jovanović of Banja Luka. On 12 May, Bishop Petar Zimonjić,Metropolitan of the Eparchy of Dabar-Bosna, was killed and in mid-August BishopSava Trlajić was killed.[175]Dositej Vasić, the Metropolitan of theMetropolitanate of Zagreb and Ljubljana died in 1945 as result of wounds from torture by Ustaše.Nikola Jovanović, the Bishop of theEparchy of Zahumlje and Herzegovina died in 1944, after he was beaten by the Ustaše and expelled to Serbia.Irinej Đorđević, the Bishop of theEparchy of Dalmatia was interned to Italian captivity.[201] There were 577 Serbian Orthodox priests, monks and other religious dignitaries in the NDH in April 1941. By December, there were none left. Between 214 and 217 were killed, 334 were exiled, eighteen fled and five died of natural causes.[201] In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 71 Orthodox priests were killed by the Ustaše during WWII, 10 by thePartisans, 5 by the Germans, and 45 died in the first decade after the end of WWII.[202]
According to Serb Orthodox Church data, out of approximately 700 clergymen and monks of the NDH territory, 577 were subjected to persecution, out of these 217 were killed, 334 were deported to Serbia, 3 were arrested, 18 managed to escape and 5 died (later) from consequences of torture.[203]
AcardinalAloysius Stepinac served asArchbishop of Zagreb during World War II and pledged his loyalty to the NDH. Scholars still debate the degree of Stepinac's contact with the Ustaše regime.[48]Mark Biondich stated that he was not an "ardent supporter" of the Ustahsa regime legitimising their every policy, nor an "avowed opponent" publicly denounced its crimes in a systematic manner.[204] While some clergy committed war crimes in the name of the Catholic Church, Stepinac practiced a wary ambivalence.[205][48] He was an early supporter of the goal of creating a Catholic Croatia, but soon began to question the regime's mandate of forced conversion.[48]
Historian Tomasevich praised his statements that were made against the Ustaše regime by Stepinac, as well as his actions against the regime. However, he also noted that these same statements and actions had shortcomings in respect to Ustaše's genocidal actions against the Serbs and the Serbian Orthodox Church. As Stepinac failed to publicly condemn the genocide waged against the Serbs by the Ustaše earlier during the war as he would later on. Tomasevich stated that Stepinac's courage against the Ustaše state earned him great admiration among anti-Ustaše Croats in his flock along with many others. However this came with the price of enmity of the Ustaše and Pavelić personally. In the early part of the war, he strongly supported a Yugoslavian state organized with federal lines. It was generally known that Stepinac and Pavelić thoroughly hated each other.[206] The Germans considered him Pro-Western and "friend of the Jews" leading to hostility from German and Italian forces.[207]
On 14 May 1941, Stepinac received word of anUstaše massacre of Serb villagers at Glina. On the same day, he wrote to Pavelić saying:[208]
I consider it my bishop's responsibility to raise my voice and to say that this is not permitted according to Catholic teaching, which is why I ask that you undertake the most urgent measures on the entire territory of the Independent State of Croatia, so that not a single Serb is killed unless it is shown that he committed a crime warranting death. Otherwise, we will not be able to count on the blessing of heaven, without which we must perish.
These were still private protest letters. Later in 1942 and 1943, Stepinac started to speak out more openly against the Ustaše genocides, this was after most of the genocides were already committed, and it became increasingly clear the Nazis and Ustaše will be defeated.[209] In May 1942, Stepinac spoke out against genocide, mentioning Jews and Roma, but not Serbs.[48]
Tomasevich wrote that while Stepinac is to be commended for his actions against the regime, the failure of the Croatian Catholic hierarchy and Vatican to publicly condemn the genocide "cannot be defended from the standpoint of humanity, justice and common decency".[210] In his diary, Stepinac said that "Serbs and Croats are of two different worlds, north and south pole, which will never unite as long as one of them is alive", along with other similar views.[211] HistorianIvo Goldstein described that Stepinac was being sympathetic to the Ustaše authorities and ambivalent towards the new racial laws, as well as that he was "a man with many dilemmas in a disturbing time".[212] Stepinac resented the interwar conversion of some 200,000 mostly Croatian Catholics to Orthodoxy, which he felt was forced on them by prevailing political conditions.[210] In 2016 Croatia's rehabilitation of Stepinac was negatively received in Serbia andRepublika Srpska, anentity ofBosnia and Herzegovina.[213]
TheUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum website states that "Determining the number of victims for Yugoslavia, for Croatia, and for Jasenovac is highly problematic, due to the destruction of many relevant documents, the long-term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived, and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism".[214]
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In the 1980s, calculations of World War II victims in Yugoslavia were made by the Serb statisticianBogoljub Kočović and the Croat demographerVladimir Žerjavić. Tomasevich described their studies as being objective and reliable.[215] Kočović estimated that 370,000 Serbs, both combatants and civilians, died in the NDH during the war. With a possible error of around 10%, he noted that Serb losses cannot be higher than 410,000.[216] He did not estimate the number of Serbs who were killed by the Ustaše, saying that in most cases, the task of categorizing the victims would be impossible.[217] Žerjavić estimated that the total number of Serb deaths in the NDH was 322,000, of which 125,000 died as combatants, while 197,000 were civilians. Žerjavić estimated that a total of 78,000 civilians were killed in Ustaše prisons, pits and camps, including Jasenovac, 45,000 civilians were killed by the Germans, 15,000 civilians were killed by the Italians, 34,000 civilians were killed in battles between the warring parties, and 25,000 civilians died oftyphoid.[218] The number of victims who perished in the Jasenovac concentration camp remains a matter of debate, but current estimates put the total number at around 100,000, about half of whom were Serbs.[95]
Duringthe war as well as during Tito's Yugoslavia, various numbers were given for Yugoslavia's overall war casualties.[a] Estimates by Holocaust memorial centers also vary.[b] The historianJozo Tomasevich said that the exact number of victims in Yugoslavia is impossible to determine.[219] The academicBarbara Jelavich however cites Tomasevich's estimate in writing that as many as 350,000 Serbs were killed during the period of Ustaše rule.[220] The historianRory Yeomans said that the most conservative estimates state that 200,000 Serbs were killed by Ustaše death squads but the actual number of Serbs who were executed by the Ustaše or perished in Ustaše concentration camps may be as high as 500,000.[6] In a 1992 work,Sabrina P. Ramet cites the figure of 350,000 Serbs who were "liquidated" by "Pavelić and his Ustaše henchmen".[221] In a 2006 work, Ramet estimated that at least 300,000 Serbs were "massacred by the Ustaše".[2] In her 2007 book "The Independent State of Croatia 1941-45", Ramet cites Žerjavić's overall figures for Serb losses in the NDH.[222]Marko Attila Hoare writes that "perhaps nearly 300,000 Serbs" died as a result of the Ustaše genocide and the Nazi policies.[223]
Tomislav Dulić stated that Serbs in NDH suffered among the highest casualty rates in Europe during the World War II.[112] American historianStanley G. Payne stated that direct and indirect executions by NDH regime were an "extraordinary mass crime", which in proportionate terms exceeded any other European regime beside Hitler's Third Reich.[224] He added the crimes in the NDH were proportionately surpassed only by theKhmer Rouge inCambodia and several of the extremelygenocidal African regimes.[224]Raphael Israeli wrote that "a large scale genocidal operations, in proportions to its small population, remain almost unique in the annals of wartime Europe."[70]
In Serbia as well as in the eyes of Serbs, the Ustaše atrocities constituted agenocide.[225] Many historians and authors describe the Ustaše regime's mass killings of Serbs as meeting the definition of genocide, includingRaphael Lemkin who is known for coining the wordgenocide and initiating theGenocide Convention.[226][227][228][229] Croatian historian Mirjana Kasapović explained that in the most important scientific works on genocide, crimes against Serbs, Jews and Roma in the NDH are unequivocally classified as genocide.[230]
Yad Vashem,Israel's official memorial to the victims ofthe Holocaust, stated that "Ustasha carried out aSerb genocide, exterminating over500,000, expelling 250,000, and forcing another 250,000 to convert to Catholicism".[231][232] TheSimon Wiesenthal Center, also, mentioned that leaders of the Independent State of Croatia committed genocide against Serbs, Jews, and Roma.[233]Presidents of Croatia,Stjepan Mesić andIvo Josipović, as well asBakir Izetbegović andŽeljko Komšić,Bosniak and Croat member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also described the persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia as a genocide.[234][235][236][237]
In the post-war era, theSerbian Orthodox Church considered the Serbian victims of this genocide to bemartys. As a result, the Serbian Orthodox Church commemorates theSaint Martyrs of Jasenovac on 13 September.[238]
The Yugoslav communist authorities did not use the Jasenovac camp as was done with other European concentration camps, most likely due to Serb-Croat relations. They recognized that ethnic tensions stemming from the war could have had the capacity to destabilize the new communist regime, and subsequently tried to conceal wartime atrocities and mask specific ethnic losses.[19] The Tito's government attempted to let the wounds heal and forge "brotherhood and unity" in the peoples.[239] Tito himself was invited to, and passed Jasenovac several times, but never visited the site.[240] The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war, because the Yugoslav communist government did not encourage independent scholars.[214][241][242][243] HistoriansMarko Attila Hoare andMark Biondich stated thatWestern world historians don't pay enough attention to the genocide committed by Ustaše, while several scholars described it as lesser-known genocide.[48][244][230]
World War II and especially its ethnic conflicts have been deemed instrumental in the laterYugoslav Wars (1991–95).[245]
Mile Budak and a number of other members of the NDH government, such asNikola Mandić andJulije Makanec, weretried and convicted ofhigh treason andwar crimes by thecommunist authorities of theSFR Yugoslavia. Many of them were executed.[246][247]Miroslav Filipović, thecommandant of the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška camps, was found guilty for war crimes, sentenced to death and hanged.[248]
Many othersescaped, including the supreme leader Ante Pavelić, most toLatin America. Some emigrations were prevented by theOperation Gvardijan, in whichLjubo Miloš, the commandant of the Jasenovac camp was captured and executed.[249]Aloysius Stepinac, who served asArchbishop of Zagreb was found guilty of high treason and forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism.[250] However, some claim the trial was "carried out with proper legal procedure".[250]
In its judgment in theHostages Trial, theNuremberg Military Tribunal concluded that the Independent State of Croatia was not a sovereign entity capable of acting independently of the German military, despite recognition as an independent state by the Axis powers.[251] According to the Tribunal, "Croatia was at all times here involved an occupied country".[251] TheConvention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide were not in force at the time. It was unanimously adopted by theUnited Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and entered into force on 12 January 1951.[252][253]
Andrija Artuković, Minister of Internal Affairs and Minister of Justice of the NDH who signed a number of racial laws, escaped to the United States after the war and he was extradited to Yugoslavia in 1986, where he was tried in the Zagreb District Court and was found guilty of a number of mass killings in the NDH.[254] Artuković was sentenced to death, but the sentence was not carried out due to his age and health.[255]Efraim Zuroff, aNazi hunter, played a significant role in capturingDinko Šakić, another Jasenovac camp commander, during 1990s.[256] After pressure from the international community on the right-wing presidentFranjo Tuđman, he sought Šakić's extradition and he stood trial in Croatia, aged 78; he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and given the maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment. According to the human rights researchersEric Stover, Victor Peskin and Alexa Koenig it was "the most important post-Cold War domestic effort to hold criminally accountable a Nazi war crimes suspect in a former Eastern European communist country".[256]
With the Partisanliberation of Yugoslavia, many Ustaše leaders fled and took refuge atthe college ofSan Girolamo degli Illirici near the Vatican.[103] Catholic priest and UstašeKrunoslav Draganović directed the fugitives from San Girolamo.[103] TheUS State Department andCounter-Intelligence Corps helped war criminals to escape, and assisted Draganović (who later worked for the American intelligence) in sending Ustaše abroad.[103] Many of those responsible for mass killings in NDH took refuge in South America, Portugal, Spain and the United States.[103] Luburić was assassinated in Spain in 1969 by anUDBA agent; Artuković lived in Ireland and California until extradited in 1986 and died of natural causes in prison; Dinko Šakić and his wife Nada lived in Argentina until extradited in 1998, Dinko dying in prison and his wife released.[103] Draganović also arranged Gestapo functionaryKlaus Barbie's flight.[103]
Among some of the Croat diaspora, the Ustaše became heroes.[103] Ustaše émigré terrorist groups in the diaspora (such asCroatian Revolutionary Brotherhood andCroatian National Resistance) carried out assassinations and bombings, and also plane hijackings, throughout the Yugoslav period.[257]
Some Croats, including politicians, have attempted to minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia.[258] Historian Mirjana Kasapović concluded that there are three main strategies ofhistorical revisionism in the part of Croatian historiography: the NDH was a normal counter-insurgency state at the time; no mass crimes were committed in the NDH, especially genocide; the Jasenovac camp was just a labor camp, not an extermination camp.[230]
By 1989, the future President of Croatia,Franjo Tuđman had embraced Croatian nationalism and publishedHorrors of War: Historical Reality and Philosophy, in which he questioned the official number of victims killed by the Ustaše during the Second World War. In his book,Tuđman claimed that between 30,000 and 40,000 died at Jasenovac.[259] Some scholars and observers accused Tuđman of racist statements, "flirting with ideas associated with the Ustaše movement", appointment of former Ustaše officials to political and military positions, as well as downplaying the number of victims in the Independent State of Croatia.[260][261][262][263][264]
Since 2016, anti-fascist groups, leaders of Croatia's Serb, Roma and Jewish communities and former top Croat officials have boycotted the official state commemoration for the victims of theJasenovac concentration camp because, as they said, Croatian authorities refused to denounce the Ustaše legacy explicitly and they downplayed and revitalized crimes committed by Ustaše.[265][266][267][268]
After Croatia gained independence, about 3,000 monuments dedicated to the anti-fascist resistance and the victims of fascism were destroyed.[269][270][271] According to Croatian World War II veterans' association, these destructions were not spontaneous, but a planned activity carried out by theruling party, the state and the church.[269] The status of the Jasenovac Memorial Site was downgraded to the nature park, and parliament cut its funding.[272] In September 1991,Croatian forces entered the memorial site and vandalized the museum building, while exhibitions and documentation were destroyed, damaged and looted.[270] In 1992,FR Yugoslavia sent a formal protest to theUnited Nations andUNESCO, warning of the devastation of the memorial complex.[270] TheEuropean Community Monitor Mission visited the memorial center and confirmed the damage.[270]
Israeli PresidentMoshe Katsav visited Jasenovac in 2003. His successor,Shimon Peres, paid homage to the camp's victims when he visited Jasenovac on 25 July 2010 and laid a wreath at the memorial. Peres dubbed theUstaše's crimes a "demonstration of sheer sadism".[273][274]
The Jasenovac Memorial Museum reopened in November 2006 with a new exhibition designed by a Croatian architect, Helena Paver Njirić, and an Educational Center, designed by the firm Produkcija. The Memorial Museum features an interior of rubber-clad steel modules, video and projection screens, and glass cases displaying artifacts from the camp. Above the exhibition space, which is quite dark, is a field of glass panels inscribed with the names of the victims.
TheNew York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee and the Jasenovac Research Institute, with the help of then-CongressmanAnthony Weiner (D-NY), established a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of the camps.) The dedication ceremony was attended by ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors, as well as diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia and Israel. It remains the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside the Balkans.
Nowadays, оn22 April, the anniversary of the prisoner breakout from the Jasenovac camp,Serbia marks theNational Holocaust, World War II Genocide and other Fascist Crimes Victims Remembrance Day, whileCroatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site.[275] Serbia and Bosnian entity of Republika Srpska hold a joint central commemoration at theDonja Gradina Memorial Zone.[276]
In 2018, an exhibition named "Jasenovac – The Right to Remembrance" was held in theHeadquarters of the United Nations inNew York City within the marking ofInternational Holocaust Remembrance Day, with the main goal of to foster a culture of remembrance of Serb, Jewish, Roma and anti-fascist victims of the Holocaust and genocide in the Jasenovac camp.[277][278] On 22 April 2020, the president of SerbiaAleksandar Vučić had an official visit to the memorial park inSremska Mitrovica, dedicated to the victims of genocide on the territory ofSyrmia.[279]
Commemoration ceremonies honoring the victims of theJadovno concentration camp have been organized by theSerb National Council (SNV), the Jewish community in Croatia, and local anti-fascists since 2009, while24 June has been designated as a "Day of Remembrance of the Jadovno Camp" in Croatia.[276] On 26 August 2010, the 68th anniversary of the partial liberation of theJastrebarsko children's camp, victims were commemorated in a ceremony at a monument in the Jastrebarsko cemetery. It was attended by only 40 people, mainly members of the Union of Anti-Fascist Fighters and Anti-Fascists of the Republic of Croatia.[280] TheRepublic of Srpska Government holds a commemoration at the memorial site of the victims of the Ustaše massacres in theDrina Valley.[163]
Pavelić and his Ustaše henchmen alone were responsible for the liquidation of some 350,000 Serbs.
..the Ustasha embarked on a policy of genocide which, in conjunction with the Nazi Holocaust with which it overlapped, claimed the lives of at least 30,000 Jews, a similar number of Gypsies and perhaps nearly 300,000 Serbs.
The Independent State of Croatia willingly cooperated with the Nazi "Final Solution" against Jews and Gypsies, but went beyond it, launching a campaign of genocide against Serbs in "greater Croatia." The Ustasha, like the Nazis whom they emulated, established concentration camps and death camps.
