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TheGemara (alsotransliteratedGemarah, or inYiddishGemore) is an essential component of theTalmud, comprising a collection of rabbinical analyses and commentaries on theMishnah and presented in 63 books. The term is derived from the Aramaic wordגמרא and rooted in theSemitic wordג-מ-ר (gamar), which means "to finish" or "complete". Initially, the Gemara was transmitted orally and not permitted to be written down. However, afterJudah the Prince compiled the Mishnah around 200 CE, rabbis fromBabylonia and theLand of Israel extensively studied the work.[1] Their discussions were eventually documented in a series of books, which would come to be known as the Gemara. The Gemara, when combined with the Mishnah, forms the full Talmud.
There are two versions of the Gemara: theBabylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) and theJerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi). The Babylonian Talmud, compiled by scholars in Babylonia around 500 CE and primarily from the academies ofSura,Pumbedita, andNehardea, is the more commonly cited version when referring to the "Gemara" or "Talmud" without further qualification. The main compilers of the Babylonian Talmud wereRavina andRav Ashi.
The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was compiled by Jewish scholars in the Land of Israel, primarily from the academies ofTiberias andCaesarea, around 350–400 CE.
The Talmud is organized into sixsedarim, or "orders," which include Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim, and Taharot.[1]
In 1923, Polish RabbiMeir Shapiro introduced a contemporary practice called "Daf Yomi," or "daily page," wherein participants study one page of the Talmud daily in cycles lasting seven and a half years each. This initiative ensures that both scholars and laypeople across the globe engage in the comprehensive study of the entire Talmud.[2]
The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up theTalmud. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (seeStructure of the Talmud).Maimonides describes the Gemara component as:
understanding and conceptualizing the ultimate derivation of a concept from its roots, inferring one concept from another and comparing concepts, understanding [the Law] based on the principles ofTorah exegesis, until one appreciates the essence of those principles and how the prohibitions and the other decisions which one received according to the oral tradition (i.e. Mishnah) can be derived using them....[3]
The rabbis of the Mishnah are known asTannaim (sing.Tannaתנא). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to asAmoraim (sing.Amora אמורא). The analysis of the Amoraim, recorded asgemara, is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim.
Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: theJerusalem Talmud (Hebrew:תלמוד ירושלמי, "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and theBabylonian Talmud (Hebrew:תלמוד בבלי, "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Gemara is mostly written inAramaic, the Jerusalem Gemara inWestern Aramaic and the Babylonian inEastern Aramaic, but both contain portions inHebrew. Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story.
In a narrow sense, the wordgemara refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed tosevara, which means the deriving of new results by logic.[4] Both activities are represented in theGemara as one literary work.
The Aramaic noungemar (andgemara) was formed from the verb that means "learn." This substantive noun thus designates what was learned, and the learning transmitted to scholars by tradition, though it connotes in a more limited sense to exposition of the Mishnah. The word therefore gained currency as a designation of the Talmud.[5] In the modern editions, the termgemara occurs frequently in this sense—but in nearly every case it was substituted at a later time for the objectionable wordtalmud, which wasprohibited by the Christian censors. The only passage in whichgemara occurs with the meaning of "Talmud" in the strict sense, and not censored, isEruvin 32b, where it is used byRav Nahman, a Babylonian amora (3rd C.).[5] Later editions of the Talmud frequently substitute for the word "Gemara" the Aramaic abbreviation for "the six orders of the Mishnah," pronounced as "Shas," which has become a popular designation for the Babylonian Talmud.[5]
The building block of gemara is known as a sugya, "a self-contained basic unit of Talmudic discussion" (p. 203) that often centers on a statement from the mishnah, the amoraic rabbis (memra), or simply independent of these. They vary in size and complexity and, though self-contained, may mention or assume knowledge of other sugiyot.[6]
The analysis of theAmoraim is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of theTannaim. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of theGemara; the name for such a passage of Gemara is asugya (סוגיא; pluralsugyot). Asugya will typically comprise a detailedproof-based elaboration of theMishna. Every aspect of theMishnaic text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of theMishna's full meaning.
In the Talmud, asugya is presented as a series of responsivehypotheses and questions – with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. TheGemara thus takes the form of adialectical exchange (by contrast, theMishnah statesconcluded legal opinions – and often differences in opinion between theTannaim. There is little dialogue). The disputants here are termed themakshan (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") andtartzan (answerer, "one who puts straight").
TheGemara records thesemantic disagreements betweenTannaim andAmoraim. Some of these debates were actually conducted by theAmoraim, though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...") Only rarely are debates formally closed.
The distinctive character of thegemara derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above; these "back and forth" analytics are characterized by the Talmudic phraseshakla v'tarya (שקלא וטריא; lit. "taking and throwing"). In eachsugya, either participant may cite scriptural,Mishnaic andAmoraic proof to build alogical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning."[7] This analysis has been described as "mathematical" in approach;Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of theAmoraim asscientists investigating theHalakha, where theTanakh,Mishnah,Tosefta andmidrash are thephenomena studied.
Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions andtheories will include:
The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:
Why does theMishna use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, theGemara seeks to clarify theMishna's intention.
Exploring the logical principles underlying theMishnah's statements, and showing how different understandings of theMishnah's reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, theGemara seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency.See:List of Talmudic principles andCategory:Talmud concepts and terminology
Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in theMishnah, or between theMishnah and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, theGemara clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.
Demonstrating how theMishnah's rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, theGemara will often ask where in theTorah theMishnah derives a particular law. SeeTalmudic hermeneutics andOral Torah § The interplay of the Oral and Written Law.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Talmud".The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
For further details see Bacher, "Gemara," in "Hebrew Union College Annual," pp. 26-36, Cincinnati, 1904, where the word is shown to have been used for "Talmud" from the geonic period (see also idem, "Die Terminologie der Amoräer," pp. 31 et seq., Leipsic, 1905).
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.