Ebenezer Howard's three magnets diagram, which addressed the question, "Where will the people go?", with three choices being: "Town", "Country", or "Town-Country".Ebenezer Howard's "Diagram illustrating correct principle of a city's growth"
Thegarden city movement was a 20th centuryurban planning movement promoting satellite communities surrounding the central city and separated withgreenbelts. These Garden Cities would contain proportionate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture.Ebenezer Howard first posited the idea in 1898 as a way to capture the primary benefits of the countryside and the city while avoiding the disadvantages presented by both. In the early 20th century,Letchworth,Brentham Garden Suburb, andWelwyn Garden City were built in or near London according to Howard's concept and many other garden cities inspired by hismodel have since been built all over the world.[1]
Howard's diagram illustrating the Garden City concept
Inspired by theutopian novelLooking Backward byEdward Bellamy, andHenry George's workProgress and Poverty, Howard published the bookTo-morrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform in 1898 (reissued in 1902 asGarden Cities of To-morrow). His idealised garden city would house 32,000 people on a site of 9,000 acres (3,600 ha). Howard's diagrams presented such a city in aconcentric pattern with open spaces,public parks, and six radialboulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre, although he made it clear that the actual site planning should be left to experts. The garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities assatellites of a central city of 58,000 people, linked by road and rail.[2]
Howard'sTo-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform sold enough copies to warrant a second edition, now titledGarden Cities of To-morrow. This success of this book provided him the support necessary to pursue the chance to bring his vision into reality. Howard believed that all people agreed the overcrowding and deterioration of cities was one of the troubling issues of their time. He quotes a number of respected thinkers and their disdain of cities. Howard's garden city concept combined the town and country in order to provide theworking class an alternative to working on farms or in "crowded, unhealthy cities".[3]
To build a garden city, Howard needed money to buy land. He decided to get funding from "gentlemen of responsible position and undoubted probity and honour".[4] He founded the Garden City Association (later known as theTown and Country Planning Association or TCPA), which created First Garden City, Ltd. in 1899 to create the garden city ofLetchworth.[5] However, these donors would collect interest on their investment if the garden city generated profits through rents or, as Fishman calls the process, "philanthropic land speculation".[6] Howard tried to include working classcooperative organisations, which included over two million members, but could not win their financial support.[7] Because he had to rely only on the wealthy investors of First Garden City, Howard had to make concessions to his plan, such as eliminating the cooperative ownership scheme with no landlords, short-term rent increases, and hiring architects who did not agree with his rigid design plans.[8]
In 1904,Raymond Unwin, a noted architect and town planner, and his partnerBarry Parker, won the competition run by First Garden City Ltd. to plan Letchworth, an area 34 miles outside London.[9] Unwin and Parker planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate with Howard's large agricultural greenbelt surrounding the town, and they shared Howard's notion that the working class deserved better and more affordable housing. However, the architects ignored Howard's symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more 'organic' design.[10]
Letchworth slowly attracted more residents because it brought in manufacturers through low taxes, low rents, and more space.[11] Despite Howard's best efforts, the home prices in this garden city could not remain affordable forblue-collar workers to live in. The populations comprised mostly skilledmiddle class workers. After a decade, the First Garden City became profitable and started paying dividends to its investors.[12] Although many viewed Letchworth as a success, it did not immediately inspire government investment into the next line of garden cities.
In reference to the lack of government support for garden cities, Frederic James Osborn, a colleague of Howard and his eventual successor at the Garden City Association, recalled him saying, "The only way to get anything done is to do it yourself."[13] Likely in frustration, Howard bought land atWelwyn to house the second garden city in 1919.[14] The purchase was at auction, with money Howard desperately and successfully borrowed from friends. TheWelwyn Garden City Corporation was formed to oversee the construction. But Welwyn did not become self-sustaining because it was only 20 miles from London.[15]
Even until the end of the 1930s, Letchworth and Welwyn remained as the only existing garden cities in the United Kingdom. However, the movement did succeed in emphasizing the need for urban planning policies that eventually led to theNew Town movement.[16]
Garden City principles greatly influenced the design of colonial and post-colonial capitals during the early part of the 20th century. This is the case for New Delhi (designed as the new capital ofBritish India after World War I), ofCanberra (capital of Australia established in 1913) and ofQuezon City (established in 1939,capital of the Philippines from 1948 to 1976).
Outside the British empire, the ideas quickly spread as well.
Mandatory Palestine. The Garden City movement also influenced theScottish urbanist SirPatrick Geddes in the planning ofTel Aviv,Israel, in the 1920s, during theBritish Mandate for Palestine. Geddes started his Tel Aviv plan in 1925 and submitted the final version in 1927, so all growth of this garden city during the 1930s was merely "based" on the Geddes Plan. Changes were inevitable.[18] Similarly, in the 1920s, German-born Jewish architectRichard Kauffman designed several neighborhoods under Garden City influence, includingBeth HaKerem,Rehavia,Bayit ve-Gan andKiryat Moshe in Jerusalem, as well asHadar HaCarmel,Bat Galim,Newe Shaanan, and Central and Western Carmel inHaifa as well as the historical center ofAfula. He referred to these neighborhoods as "Garden Suburbs."[19]
Japan. In Japan, several towns were inspired by the Garden City movement in the early 1900s,[20] includingDen-en-chofu,[21] Yamato Village (aroundRikugi-en Gardens),[22][23] andOmiya Bonsai Village.[24] As with many Garden Cities, despite goals of creating classless societies, each of these examples became increasingly exclusive and populated primarily by wealthy statesmen and celebrities.[25]
Belgium. In Belgium the Garden City movement started early,[27] but took roots in the 1910s, directly connected to industrial development, especially that of thecoal mines.[28] Early examples are TuinwijkBeringen-Mijn (1908), Tuinwijk vanZwartberg (1910), andEisden-Tuinwijk (1911). After the First World War, there was a huge need for new housing, and the principles were widely applied. Social housing associations were created, often linked to political movements. In Brussels, Antwerp and Ghent new extensions of the city were built. The houses in these areas are still very popular among residents and classified as historical heritage.
Czechia. In the formerCzechoslovakia, all industrial cities founded or reconstructed by theBata Shoes company (Zlín,Svit,Partizánske) were influenced by the conception of the Garden City.
Finland.Kauniainen is an early example, which was founded by a corporation in 1906, AB Grankulla.
France. The Garden City movement was very influential in France. The concept of garden city (cité jardin), was closely related to the concept of the 'workers city' (cité ouvrière).[29] All over the country settlements were established accordingly.
Germany. Along with the UK, Germany was at the forefront of the Garden Cities movement, starting in the late 19th century, part of a broader discourse on social renewal.[30][31] Specific projects were typically the results of private initiatives.
Hungary. Originally built inKispest (now part ofBudapest) in 1908,Wekerletelep is a prime example of the garden city concept
Netherlands. The concept of the Garden City was widely applied in different parts of the country, mainly as 'garden villages', such asTuindorp Vreewijk in Rotterdam, Tuindorp 't Lansink inHengelo,Tuindorp Oostzaan in Amsterdam, andTuindorp Watergraafsmeer (Betondorp) in Amsterdam. In most cases, private industrial companies took the initiative. The development continued on a bigger scale after the Second World War, now initiated and controlled by municipalities, with examples such as theWestelijke Tuinsteden (a part of Amsterdam).[32]
United Kingdom – Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City (see History above)
Australia. The Dacey Garden Suburb (nowDaceyville) was established in 1912 based on Garden City principles.[36] The suburb ofColonel Light Gardens inAdelaide, South Australia was also designed according to Garden City principles.[37] So too the town ofSunshine which is now a suburb ofMelbourne inVictoria and the suburb of Lalor, also in Melbourne. The Peter Lalor Estate in Lalor takes its name from a leader of the Eureka Stockade and remains today in its original form. However it is under threat from developers and Whittlesea Council.[38][39] Lalor:Peter Lalor Home Building Cooperative 1946-2012 Scollay, Moira. Pre-dating these was the garden suburb of Haberfield in 1901 by Richard Stanton, organised on a vertical integrated model from land subdivision, mortgage financing, house and interior designs and site landscaping.[40]
New Zealand. Garden city ideals were employed in the original town planning ofChristchurch. Prior to the earthquakes of2010 and2011, the city infrastructure and homes were well integrated into green spaces. The rebuild blueprint rethought the garden city concept and how it would best suit the city. Greenbelts and urban greenspaces have been redesigned to incorporate more living spaces.
Argentina. An example isCiudad Jardín Lomas del Palomar, declared by the influential Argentinian professor of engineering, Carlos María della Paolera, founder of "Día Mundial del Urbanismo" (World Urbanism Day), as the first Garden City in South America.
Peru. In Peru, there is a long tradition in urban design[a] that has been reintroduced in its architecture more recently. In 1966, theResidencial San Felipe in Lima's district of Jesus Maria was built using the Garden City concept.[41]
While garden cities were praised for being an alternative to overcrowded and industrial cities, along with greater sustainability, garden cities were often criticized for damaging the economy, being destructive of the beauty of nature, and being inconvenient. According to A. Trystan Edwards, garden cities engender desecration of the countryside by trying to recreate countryside suburbs that could spread on their own; however, this was not a possible feat due to the limited space that they had (except at their outermost edges).[42]
More recently, the environmental movement's embrace ofurban density has offered an "implicit critique" of the garden city movement.[43] In this way the critique of the concept resembles critiques of other suburbanization models, though author Stephen Ward has argued that critics often do not adequately distinguish between true garden cities and more mundanedormitory city plans.[43]
It is often referred to as anurban-design experiment which is typified by failure due to the laneways used as common entries and exits to the houses, thereby helping to ghettoise communities and encourage crime; it has ultimately triggered efforts to 'de-Radburn'-ize, or to partially demolish American-Radburn-designed public housing areas.[44][clarification needed]
When interviewed in 1998, the architect responsible for introducing the design to public housing inNew South Wales,Philip Cox, was reported to have admitted with regards to an American-Radburn-designed estate in the suburb ofVillawood, "everything that could go wrong in a society went wrong," and "it became the centre of drugs, it became the centre of violence and, eventually, the police refused to go into it. It was hell."[44]
The concept of the Garden City was adopted again in the UK after World War II, when theNew Towns Act spurred the development of many new communities based on Howard's egalitarian ideas. It also affected town planning in other countries, such as Italy; the INA-Casa plan – a national public housing plan from the 1950s and '60s – designed several suburbs according to Garden City principles: examples are found in many cities and towns of the country, such as theIsolotto suburb inFlorence,Falchera inTurin,Harar inMilan,Cesate Villaggio inCesate (part of theMetropolitan City of Milan), etc.
More recent application of the principles can be found in different contexts across the world. InBhutan's capital cityThimphu, for example, the new plan, following the Principles of Intelligent Urbanism, is an organic response to the fragile ecology. Using sustainable concepts, it is a contemporary response to the garden city concept. TheEpcot Center inBay Lake, Florida, took some influence from Howard's Garden City concept while the park was still under construction.[45] Singapore, a tropical city, has over time incorporated various facets of the Garden City concept in its town plans to try and make the country a unique City in a Garden.[46] In the 1970s, the country started including concepts in its town plans to ensure that building codes and land use plans made adequate provisions for greenery and nature to become part of community development, thereby providing a great living environment. In 1996, the National Parks Board was given the mandate to spearhead the development and maintenance of greenery and bring the island's green spaces and parks to the community.[47]
In 2007, theTown and Country Planning Association marked its 108th anniversary by calling for Garden City and Garden Suburb principles to be applied to the presentNew Towns andEco-towns in the United Kingdom.[48] The campaign continued in 2013 with the publication in March of that year of "Creating Garden Cities and Suburbs Today - a guide for councils".[49] Also in 2013, LordSimon Wolfson announced that he would award theWolfson Economics Prize for the best ideas on how to create a new garden city.[citation needed]
In 2014 The Letchworth Declaration[50] was published which called for a body to accredit future garden cities in the UK. The declaration has a strong focus on the visible (architecture and layout) and the invisible (social, ownership and governance) architecture of a settlement. One result was the creation of the New Garden Cities Alliance as acommunity interest company. Its aim is to be complementary to groups like theTown and Country Planning Association and it has adopted TCPA garden city principles as well as those from other groups, including those from Cabannes and Ross's booklet21st Century Garden Cities of To-morrow.[51][self-published source?]
British Chancellor of the ExchequerGeorge Osborne announced plans for a new garden city to be built atEbbsfleet Valley,Kent, in early 2014, with a second also planned as an expansion ofBicester,Oxfordshire.[52][53] The United Kingdom government announced further plans for garden towns in 2015, supporting both the development of new communities in NorthEssex and support for sustainable and environmentally-friendly town development inDidcot, Oxfordshire.[54] A "Black Country Garden City" was announced in 2016 with plans to build 45,000 new homes in theWest Midlands on brownfield sites.[55]
On 2 January 2017, plans for new garden villages, each with between 1,500 and 10,000 homes, and garden towns each with more than 10,000 houses were announced by the government.[56] These smaller projects have been proposed due to opposition of "urban sprawl" in the garden city projects, as well as such quick expansion to small communities. The first wave of villages to be approved by ministers are to be located in:
The concept of garden cities is to produce relatively economically independent cities with short commute times and the preservation of the countryside. Garden suburbs arguably do the opposite. Garden suburbs are built on the outskirts of large cities with no sections of industry. They are therefore dependent on reliable transport allowing workers to commute into the city.[57]Lewis Mumford, one of Howard's disciples, explained the difference as "The Garden City, as Howard defined it, is not a suburb but the antithesis of a suburb: not a rural retreat, but a more integrated foundation for an effective urban life."[58]
The planned garden suburb emerged in the late 19th century as a by-product of new types of transportation were embraced by a newly prosperous merchant class. The first garden villages were built by English estate owners, who wanted to relocate or rebuild villages on their lands. It was in these cases that architects first began designing small houses. Early examples includeHarewood andMilton Abbas. Major innovations that defined early garden suburbs and subsequent suburban town planning include linking villa-like homes with landscaped public spaces and roads.[59]
Despite the emergence of the garden suburb in England, the typology flowered in the second half of the 19th century in United States. There were generally two garden suburb typologies, the garden village and the garden enclave. The garden villages are spatially independent of the city but remain connected to the city by railroads, streetcars, and later automobiles. The villages often included shops and civic buildings. In contrast, garden enclaves are typically strictly residential and emphasize natural and private space, instead of public and community space. The urban form of the enclaves was often coordinated through the use of early land use controls typical of modern zoning, including controlled setbacks, landscaping, and materials.[60]
Garden suburbs were not part of Howard's plan[61] and were actually a hindrance to garden city planning—they were in fact almost the antithesis of Howard's plan, what he tried to prevent. The suburbanisation of London was an increasing problem which Howard attempted to solve with his garden city model, which attempted to end urban sprawl by the sheer inhibition of land speculation due to the land being held in trust, and the inclusion of agricultural areas on the city outskirts.[62]
Raymond Unwin, one of Howard's early collaborators on theLetchworth Garden City project in 1907, became very influential in formalizing the garden city principles in the design of suburbs through his workTown Planning in Practice: An Introduction to the Art of Designing Cities and Suburbs (1909).[63] The book strongly influenced theHousing and Town Planning Act of 1909, which provided municipalities the power to develop urban plans for new suburban communities.[64]
Smaller developments were also inspired by the garden city philosophy and were modified to allow for residential "garden suburbs" without the commercial and industrial components of the garden city.[65] They were built on the outskirts of cities, in rural settings. Some notable examples being, in London,Hampstead Garden Suburb, theSutton Garden Suburb inBenhilton,Sutton,Pinner's Pinnerwood conversation area and theRomford Garden Suburb inGidea Park and, inLiverpool,Wavertree Garden Suburb. The Gidea Park estate in particular was built during two main periods of activity, 1911 and 1934. Both resulted in some good examples of domestic architecture, by such architects asWells Coates andBerthold Lubetkin. Thanks to such strongly conservative local residents' associations as the Civic Society, both Hampstead and Gidea Park retain much of their original character.
Bournville Village Trust in Birmingham, UK, is an important residential development which was associated with the growth of 'Cadbury's Factory in a Garden'. Here garden city principles are a fundamental part of the Trust's activity. There are tight restrictions applying to the properties here such as no stonewall cladding.[citation needed]
Park median in Avenida Ámsterdam, the "grand avenue" of theMexico City subdivisionColonia Hipódromo de la Condesa, designed in 1926 and inspired in part by Ebenezer Howard's Garden City
In 1926, Colonia Hipódromo[67] (a.k.a. Hipódromo de la Condesa), in what is now known as theCondesa area, including its iconic parksParque México andParque España
The subdivisions were based on the principles of the garden city as promoted byEbenezer Howard, including ampleparks and other open spaces, park islands in the middle of "grand avenues", such as Avenida Amsterdam in colonia Hipódromo.[66]One unique example of a garden suburb is theHumberstone Garden Suburb in the United Kingdom by the Humberstone Anchor Tenants' Association inLeicestershire, and it is the only garden suburb ever to be built by the members of a workers' co-operative; it remains intact to the present.[68] In 1887 the workers of the Anchor Shoe Company in Humberstone formed a workers' cooperative and built 97 houses.
American architects and partners,Walter Burley Griffin andMarion Mahony Griffin[69] were proponents of the movement and after their arrival inAustralia to design the national capitalCanberra, they produced a number of garden suburb estates, most notably atEaglemont with theGlenard[70] and Mount Eagle Estates[71] and the Ranelagh and Milleara Estates in Victoria.
The idea of garden suburbs was implemented by the Jewish settlers inMandate Palestine and later inIsrael, as well as in British and French colonial urban areas in Africa.[72][73]
^Examples being the ancient city ofChan Chan (20 km2 (7.7 sq mi), 850 AD) in Trujillo, north of Lima, and the 12th-century Inca city ofMachu Picchu. Peru's modern capital, Lima, was designed in 1535 by Spanish Conquistadors to replace its ancient past as a religious sanctuary with 37 pyramids.
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^Suga, Yasoku (2019). "Branded Heterotopia: Omiya Bonsai Village in Japan from 1925 to the Present".Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes.39 (1):77–89.doi:10.1080/14601176.2018.1511178.S2CID166160488.
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