Ganesha orGanesh (Sanskrit:गणेश,IAST:Gaṇeśa,IPA:[ɡɐˈɳeːɕɐ]), also known asGanapati,Vinayaka andPillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most revered and worshippeddeities in theHindu pantheon[4] and is the Supreme God in theGanapatya sect.[5] His depictions are found throughoutIndia.[6]Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations.[7] Ganesha also holds the Title of "Pratham Pujya"-(The god to be worshipped initially before the worship of any other Deity). Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extendsto Jains and Buddhists and beyond India.[8]
Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by hiselephant head and four arms.[9] He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and bringer of good luck;[10][11] the patron ofarts andsciences; and thedeva of logic, intellect, and wisdom.[12] As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked during writing sessions as a patron of letters and learning.[2][13] Several texts relateanecdotes associated with his birth and exploits.
Ganesha is mentioned in Hindu texts between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, and a few Ganesha images from the 4th and 5th centuries CE have been documented by scholars.[14] Hindu texts identify him as the son ofParvati andShiva of theShaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions.[15][16] In theGanapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the Supreme Being.[17] Ganesha is also considered as the incarnation of "Mahaganapati"(Superior form of Ganesha). The principal texts on Ganesha include theGanesha Purana, theMudgala Purana, and theGanapati Atharvasirsha.
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, includingGanapati (Ganpati),Vighneshvara, andPillaiyar. The Hindu title of respectShri (Sanskrit:श्री;IAST:śrī; also spelledSri orShree) is often added before his name.[18]
The nameGanesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the wordsgana (gaṇa), meaning a 'group, multitude, or categorical system' andisha (īśa), meaning 'lord or master'.[19] The wordgaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue ofShiva, Ganesha's father.[20] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[21] Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of theGaṇas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements.[22]Ganapati (गणपति;gaṇapati), a synonym forGanesha, is a compound composed ofgaṇa, meaning "group", andpati, meaning "ruler" or "lord".[21] Though the earliest mention of the wordGanapati is found inhymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCERigveda, it is uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha.[23][24] TheAmarakosha,[25] an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms ofGanesha:Vinayaka,Vighnarāja (equivalent toVighnesha),Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers),[26]Gaṇādhipa (equivalent toGanapati andGanesha),Ekadanta (one who has one tusk),Heramba,Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), andGajanana (gajānana), having the face of anelephant.[27]
Vinayaka (विनायक;vināyaka) orBinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in thePurāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples inMaharashtra known as theAshtavinayak (Marathi:अष्टविनायक,aṣṭavināyaka).[29] The namesVighnesha (विघ्नेश;vighneśa) andVighneshvara (विघ्नेश्वर;vighneśvara) (Lord of Obstacles)[30] refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).[31]
A prominent name for Ganesha in theTamil language isPillai (Tamil:பிள்ளை) orPillaiyar (பிள்ளையார்).[32] A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying thatpillai means a "child" whilepillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the wordspallu,pella, andpell in theDravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk".[33] Anita Raina Thapan notes that theroot wordpille in the namePillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because thePali wordpillaka means "a young elephant".[34]
In theBurmese language, Ganesha is known asMaha Peinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ,pronounced[məhàpèiɰ̃né]), derived fromPaliMahā Wināyaka (မဟာဝိနာယက).[35] The widespread name of Ganesha inThailand is Khanet (can be transliterated as Ganet), or the more official title ofPhra Phi Khanet.[36] The earliest images and mention lists Ganesha as a major deity in present-day Indonesia,[37] Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam dating to the 7th and 8th centuries,[38] and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier.[39] InSri Lankan, amongSinhalese Buddhists, he is known asGana deviyo, and revered along withVishnu,Skanda,Buddha and other deities.[40]
Ganesha is a popular figure inIndian art.[41] Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[42] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts ofIndia by the 6th century.[43] The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[44] and another similar statue is dated 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[45] Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[46] A more primitive statue in one of theEllora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[47] Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds anaxe or agoad in one upper arm and apasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.[note 1]
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhayamudra).[51] The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[52]
A typical four-armed form. Miniature ofNurpur school (circa 1810)[53]
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[54] Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[55] One of his popular forms,Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[56] While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.[57] The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created byParvati using clay to protect her andShiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.[58] Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.[59] Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[60]
Ganesha's earliest name wasEkadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.[61] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[62] The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in theMudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's secondincarnation is Ekadanta.[63] Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).[64] This feature is so important that according to theMudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it:Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) andMahodara (Great Belly).[65] Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST:udara).[66] TheBrahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e.,cosmic eggs; IAST:brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[67]
6th-century Ganesha Statue inBadami caves temples, depicting Ganesha with two arms
Ganesha in Bronze from 13th centuryVijayanagara Empire, depicting Ganesha with four arms
The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[68] Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[69] His earliest images had two arms.[70] Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.[71] The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[72] According to theGanesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpentVasuki around his neck.[73] Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST:yajñyopavīta)[74] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be athird eye or the sectarian mark (IAST:tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[75] TheGanesha Purana prescribes atilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[76] A distinct form of Ganesha calledBhalachandra (IAST:bhālacandra; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element.[77]
Ganesha is often described as red in colour.[78] Specific colours are associated with certain forms.[79] Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise onHindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations asHeramba-Ganapati andRina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).[80]Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualised as blue during meditation in that form.[81]
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by amouse.[85] Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[86] The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in theMatsya Purana and later in theBrahmananda Purana andGanesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.[87] TheGanapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[88] The namesMūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) andĀkhuketana (rat-banner) appear in theGanesha Sahasranama.[89]
The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpretGaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizestamoguṇa as well as desire".[90] Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[91] Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit wordmūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the rootmūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type ofvighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function asVigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folkgrāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[92] Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.[93]
Ganesha isVighneshvara (Vighnaraja,Marathi –Vighnaharta), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[94] He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new.[95] Paul Courtright says that Ganesha'sdharma and his raison d'être is to create and remove obstacles.[96]
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[31] Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of theGanapatyas, to this shift in emphasis fromvighnakartā (obstacle-creator) tovighnahartā (obstacle-averter).[97] However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.[98]
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[99] In Sanskrit, the wordbuddhi is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[100] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in theGanesha Purana and theGanesha Sahasranama isBuddhipriya.[101] This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of theGanesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.[102] The wordpriya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband",[103] so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".[104]
Ganesha is identified with the HindumantraOm. The termoṃkārasvarūpa (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[105] TheGanapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association.Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:[106]
(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti)Brahma,Vishnu, andMahesa. You areIndra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You areBrahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], andSwargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in theDevanāgarī andTamil scripts.[107]
According toKundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the firstchakra, calledMuladhara (mūlādhāra).Mula means "original, main";adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[108] This association is also attested to in theGanapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "You continually dwell in thesacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]."[109] Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[110] Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel thewheel of life".[108]
Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son ofShiva andParvati, thePuranic texts give different versions about his birth.[112] In some he was created by Parvati,[113] or by Shiva[114] or created by Shivaand Parvati,[115] in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati[116] or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.[117]
The family includes his brother, the god of war,Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.[118] Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn.[119] Innorthern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[120] and may reflect sectarian tensions.[121]
Ganesha with consorts Riddhi and Siddhi (spiritual power), Painting titled "Riddhi Siddhi" byRaja Ravi Varma (1848–1906)
Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[122] One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarriedbrahmachari.[123] This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[124] Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts ofBuddhi (intellect),Siddhi (spiritual power), andRiddhi (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives.[125] He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit:daşi).[126] Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts,Sarasvati orŚarda (particularly inMaharashtra).[127] He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity,Lakshmi.[128] Another pattern, mainly prevalent in theBengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree,Kala Bo.[129]
TheShiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons:Kşema (safety) andLābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to beŚubha (auspiciousness) andLābha.[130] The 1975Hindi filmJai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter namedSantoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.[131]
Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[132] K.N Soumyaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. ... Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country".[133] Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[134]
Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[135] Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as theBharatanatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha.[78]Mantras such asOm ShriGaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha isOmGaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om,Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[136]
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such asmodaka and small sweet balls calledladdus. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called amodakapātra.[137] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped withred sandalwood paste (raktachandana)[138] or red flowers.Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[139]
Festivals associated with Ganesh areGanesha Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in theśuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month ofBhadrapada (August/September) and theGanesh Jayanti (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on thecathurthī of theśuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month ofmagha (January/February)."[140]
Street festivities inHyderabad, India during the festival of Ganesh Chaturthi
An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesh Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[141] The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god's visit. The festival culminates on the day ofAnanta Chaturdashi, when the idols (murtis) are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[142] Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893,Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[143] He did so "to bridge the gap between theBrahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British inMaharashtra.[144] Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[145] Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha inpavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[146]
Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[147][148] The festival also assumes huge proportions inMumbai,Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.
In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna).[149] As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati's doorkeeper.[150] In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक;aṣṭavināyaka; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city ofPune, each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore.[151] The eight shrines are:Morgaon,Siddhatek,Pali,Mahad,Theur,Lenyadri,Ozar andRanjangaon.
T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image ofVighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, belowpīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees ... in a niche ... in temples ofViṣṇu (Vishnu) as well asŚiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed inŚiva temples ... the figure ofVighneśvara is invariably seen."[154] Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, includingSoutheast Asia,Nepal (including the fourVinayaka shrines in theKathmandu Valley),[155] and in several western countries.[156]
Some scholars have proposed an elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure onIndo-Greek coins from the 1st century BCE to be an early representation of Ganesha, but this has been strongly contested.[159] Others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on the evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India.[160] The firstterracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE and were found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, andChandraketugarh. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and endomorphic physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE).[161]
Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE.[162] Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north ofKabul, along with those ofSurya andShiva and is dated to the 4th century. The second image found inGardez, known as theGardez Ganesha, has an inscription on the pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of theUdayagiri Caves inMadhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of theBhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-centuryGupta period.[163][164][165] Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th century.[164] An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century.[162] Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows:[162]
What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa's Vedic origins and in thePurāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon ofthis deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.
The evidence for an even more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India.[162] Ganesha appears inChina by the 6th century and his artistic images in temple settings as the remover of obstacles in South Asia appear by about 400 CE.[166][167] He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati's son and integrated intoShaivism theology by early centuries of the common era.[168]
9th-century Ganesha Statue inPrambanan,Java, Indonesia
Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:[169]
In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside theBrāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come intoBrāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in thePurāṇic literature and the iconography ofGaṇeśa.
Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headedyakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to representGaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage.Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."[170]
ThePashupati seal (c. 2300 BCE - 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to beShiva. Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period.[171] One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the fourVinayakas (Vināyakas).[172] In theYajurveda, theVināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[173] but who were easily propitiated.[174] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in thePurāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of theMānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering".[175] Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear inIndian art andcoinage as early as the 2nd century.[176] According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people ofSri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.[177]
17th-centuryRajasthan I manuscript of theMahabharata depictingVyasa narrating theMahabharata to Ganesha, who serves as the scribe
The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit:gaṇapati) occurs twice in theRig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title forBrahmanaspati, according to commentators.[178] While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[179] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in theRig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers toBṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—andBṛhaspati only".[180] Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers toIndra,[181] who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of theMaruts)."[182] However, Rocher notes that the more recentGanapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha.[183]
The Sangam period Tamil poetAvvaiyar (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay ofCeylon in marriage to the King ofTirucovalur (pp. 57–59).[184]
Two verses in texts belonging toBlack Yajurveda,Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1)[185] andTaittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1),[186] appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuṇḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th-century commentatorSayana explicitly establishes this identification.[187] The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane,[188] and a club,[189] is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin".[190] However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[191] Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in theMaitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".[192]
Ganesha does not appear in theIndian epic literature that is dated to theVedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poemMahabharata (1.1.75–79[a]) says that the sageVyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of theMahabharata,[193] in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[194] The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.[195] Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe forVyāsa's dictation of theMahabharata in this interpolation.[196] Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, andMoriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to theMahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature inSouth Indian manuscripts of theMahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[197] The termvināyaka is found in some recensions of theŚāntiparva andAnuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations.[198] A reference toVighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") inVanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[199]
A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).
Stories about Ganesha often occur in thePuranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[200] Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th-10th centuries.[201]
In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence inSanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:[202]
Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surroundingGaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.
Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities ofSmartism.Adi Shankara popularised the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.[203] This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha,Vishnu, Shiva,Devi, andSurya.[204] Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.
In theGanapatya tradition founded in theGanesha Purana and theMudgala Purana, Ganesha is worshipped as one of the five principle deities along with Siva, Vishnu, the Sun, Ganesha, and the Goddess.[205]
The date of composition for theGanesha Purana and theMudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."[206] Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for theGanesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[207]
R.C. Hazra suggests that theMudgala Purana is older than theGanesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[208] However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that theMudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, theMudgala Purana specifically mentions theGanesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (theBrahma, theBrahmanda, theGanesha, and theMudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[209] While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[210] Another highly regarded scripture in theGanapatya tradition, the SanskritGanapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th century.[211][212]
TheGanesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in thesahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of theGanesha Sahasranama are found in theGanesha Purana.[213]
Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands.[214]
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[215] From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[216] The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[217]
Hindus migrated toMaritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[218] Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of thePhilippines,Java,Bali, andBorneo show specific regional influences.[219] The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. InIndochina, Hinduism andBuddhism were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[220] In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of theChams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[221]
Amongst Indonesians who predominantly profess the Islamic faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha's likeness in their grounds or logo.Blitar,Salatiga City, andKediri Regency are among three local governments that include Ganesha in their regency/city official seals. Indonesia is the only country to have featured Ganesha on its banknotes (20 thousand denomination, between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation.
Before the arrival ofIslam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[222]
Ganesha appears inMahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist godVināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[223] His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[224] As the Buddhist godVināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, calledNṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[225] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known asHeramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[226]
Ganapati (also known as Vinayaka in Buddhism) was adopted as a deity into IndianVajrayana Buddhism and Ganapati (Tibetan:tshogs bdag) remains a deity in theTibetan Buddhist pantheon.[227][228][229] There are thirty texts contained in theTibetan Buddhist canon which deal with Ganesha.[229] In these texts, which are Indian texts preserved in Tibetan translation, Ganapati is depicted as a wealth deity which can also grant worldly pleasures like sex and food. He is also depicted as a protector from negative forces, demons, and sickness.[229] In these tantric Buddhist sources, Ganesha is generally presented as an emanation of the BodhisattvaAvalokitesvara.[229]
Ganesha also appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. Innorthern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[230] In Japan, where Ganesha is known asKangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[231]
Derived from Mahāvināyaka, Ganesha is known as Mahāpeinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ) in Burmese.[232] The worship of Mahāpeinne Nat in Myanmar started around the earlySecond Ava Period.[233]Konbaung kingMindon Min recognized the Mahapeinne Nat (Ganesh) along side with Thurathati (Sarasvati), Sandi (Dewi), Paramithwa (Siva), and Beithano (Visnu) as Natkyi (နတ်ကြီး) or greater Nat.[234]
Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is also regarded as a remover of obstacles, and as the god of success.[221] Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by KingVajiravudh of theChakri dynasty who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace,Sanam Chandra Palace inNakhon Pathom Province where he focused on his academic and literary works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of theFine Arts Department. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's first prominent fine arts academy; theSilpakorn University.[235]
The canonical literature ofJainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha.[236] However, Ganesha is worshipped by someJains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth,Kubera.[237] Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections and influence of Hinduism.[238] The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[239] A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of its images.[236] Images of Ganesha appear in some Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[240]
^"Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. In theMudgalapurāṇa (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism (Mamāsura) who had attacked him,Gaṇeśa Vighnarāja throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders toGaṇeśha." For quotation of description of the work, see:Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 73.
Brown 1991, p. 1 "Gaṇeśa is often said to be the most worshipped god in India."
Getty 1936, p. 1 "Gaṇeśa, Lord of theGaṇas, although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods and his image is found in practically every part of India."
Chapter XVII, "The Travels Abroad", in:Nagar 1992, pp. 175–187. For a review of Ganesha's geographic spread and popularity outside of India.
Getty 1936, pp. 37–38, For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal,Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, Burma, Siam,Indo-China, Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan
^For Ganesha's role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary onGaṇapati Upaniṣad, verse 12 inSaraswati 2004, p. 80
^DeVito, Carole; DeVito, Pasquale (1994).India - Mahabharata. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminar Abroad 1994 (India). United States Educational Foundation in India. p. 4.
^Vigna means "obstacles", whileNasha means "destroy". These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book,Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings.
^Narain, A.K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon" inBrown 1991, p. 27
^For history of the development of thegāṇapatya and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, "TheGāṇapatyas" in:Thapan 1997, pp. 176–213.
^The wordgaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on thegaṇeśasahasranāma. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including namesGaṇeśvaraḥ andGaṇakrīḍaḥ in:Śāstri Khiste 1991, pp. 7–8.
Oka 1913, p. 8 for source text ofAmarakośa 1.38 asvināyako vighnarājadvaimāturagaṇādhipāḥ – apyekadantaherambalambodaragajānanāḥ.
Śāstri 1978 for text ofAmarakośa versified as 1.1.38.
^Y. Krishan,Gaṇeśa: Unravelling an Enigma, 1999, p. 6): "Pārvati who created an image ofGaṇeśa out of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in thesacred waters of the Gangā. Therefore he is said to have two mothers—Pārvati and Gangā and hence called dvaimātura and also Gāngeya."
^For the history of theaṣṭavināyaka sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see:Mate 1962, pp. 1–25
^These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book,Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For the nameVighnesha, see:Courtright 1985, pp. 156, 213
^abFor Krishan's views on Ganesha's dual nature see his quote: "Gaṇeśa has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as agrāmadevatā, he isvighnakartā, and asGaṇeśa he isvighnahartā, apaurāṇic devatā." (Krishan 1999, p. viii)
^*Martin-Dubost 1965, for a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures.
Chapter X, "Development of the Iconography ofGaṇeśa", in:Krishan 1999, pp. 87–100, for a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates.
Pal 1995, for a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography.
^Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).
^Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in theLos Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii.
photograph 9, "Ganesh images being taken for immersion", in:Pal 1995, pp. 22–23. For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession.
Pal 1995, p. 25, For two similar statues about to be immersed.
Pal 1995, pp. 41–64. For many examples of Ganesha dancing.
Brown 1991, p. 183 For the popularity of the dancing form.
^Four-armedGaṇeśa. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster,Gaṇeśa is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellowdhoti and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace saluteGaṇeśa by joining their tiny feet together.Gaṇeśa counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."
Krishan 1999, p. 89, For two-armed forms as an earlier development than four-armed forms.
Brown 1991, p. 103 Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in "Images ofGaṇeśa In Jainism" that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date.
Krishan 1999, pp. 51–52. For the story of wrappingVāsuki around the neck andŚeṣa around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama asSarpagraiveyakāṅgādaḥ ("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element.
^*Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpentŚeṣa.
Nagar 1992, p. 92. For the snake as a common type ofyajñyopavīta for Ganesha.
^*Nagar 1992, p. 81.tilaka with three horizontal lines.
thedhyānam in: Sharma (1993 edition ofGanesha Purana) I.46.1. For Ganesa visualized astrinetraṁ (having three eyes).
^*Nagar 1992, p. 81. For a citation toGanesha Purana I.14.21–25 and For a citation toPadma Purana as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha
Bailey 1995, pp. 198–199. For the translation ofGanesha Purana I.14, which includes a meditation form with the moon on forehead.
^ForMūṣakavāhana see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In:Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta 'khadyota' vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary byBhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
^For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see:Grimes 1995, p. 86.
^A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117
Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", in:Brown 1991, p. 73. For mention of the interpretation that "the rat is 'the animal that finds its way to every place,'"
^"Lord of Removal of Obstacles", a common name, appears in the title of Courtright'sGaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For equivalent Sanskrit namesVighneśvara andVighnarāja, see:Mate 1962, p. 136
^Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.
^Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma readsBuddhipriya, Bailey translatesGranter-of-lakhs.
^abTantra Unveiled: Seducing the Forces of Matter & Spirit By Rajmani Tigunait; Contributor Deborah Willoughby; Published 1999; Himalayan Institute Press; p. 83;ISBN0893891584
^Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda's numbering system this is part ofupamantra 7. 'You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara"'..
^This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: "This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the godŚiva sweetly pouring water from hiskamaṇḍalu on the head of babyGaṇeśa. Seated comfortably on the meadow,Pārvatī balances with her left hand the babyGaņeśa with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets."
Getty 1936, p. 33. "According to ancient tradition,Gaṇeśa was aBrahmacārin, that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi)."
Krishan 1999, p. 63. "... in thesmārta or orthodox traditional religious beliefs,Gaṇeśa is a bachelor orbrahmacārī"
^For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives ofGaṇeśa", in:Brown 1991, pp. 126–129.
^For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement "In short the spouses ofGaṇeśa are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features...", see:Krishan 1999, p. 62.
^For single consort or a namelessdaşi (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives ofGaṇeśa", in:Brown 1991, p. 115.
^For associations with Śarda andSarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives ofGaṇeśa", in:Brown 1991, pp. 131–132.
^For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives ofGaṇeśa", in:Brown 1991, pp. 132–135.
^For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives ofGaṇeśa", in:Brown 1991, pp. 124–125.
^For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives ofGaṇeśa", in:Brown 1991, p. 130.
^For the fourth waxing day inMāgha being dedicated to Ganesha (Gaṇeśa-caturthī) see: (Bhattacharyya 1956)., "Festivals and Sacred Days", in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483.
^The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra; Edited By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, pp. 76–94 ("The Ganesh Festival in Maharashtra: Some Observations" by Paul B. Courtright); 1988; SUNY Press;ISBN088706664X
^The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image ofMahāvināyaka" was consecrated by theShahi King Khingala. For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., "Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality", in:Brown 1991, pp. 50, 63.
^Dhavalikar, M. K. (1971), "A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan",East and West,21 (3/4):331–336,JSTOR29755703
^Wilson, H. H.Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II:Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. II);ISBN8171101380 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222)gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; "We invoke theBrahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages."
^Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature".Brown 1991, p. 69.Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.
^Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature".Brown 1991, p. 69–70.
^Wilson, H.H.Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV:Maṇḍalas 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K.L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. IV);ISBN8171101380 (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092)ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of theMaruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".
^For use of RV verses in recent Ganapatya literature, see Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" inBrown 1991, p. 70
^The verse: "tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahi|tán no dántî pracodáyāt||"
^For text ofMaitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā 2.9.1 andTaittirīya Āraṇyaka 10.1 and identification bySāyaṇa in his commentary on theāraṇyaka, see: Rocher, Ludo, "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" inBrown 1991, p. 70.
Krishan 1999, pp. 12–15. For arguments documenting interpolation into theMaitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā
^*Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into theMaitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā andTaittirīya Āraṇyaka.
Dhavalikar, M.K. "Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality" inBrown 1991, pp. 56–57. For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's in early Literature.
^Rocher, Ludo "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71–72.
^Mahābhārata Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
^For a statement that "Fifty-nine manuscripts of theĀdiparvan were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story ofGaṇeśa acting as the scribe for writing theMahābhārata occurs in 37 manuscripts", see:Krishan 1999, p. 31, note 4.
^Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature".Brown 1991, p. 73.
^*(Courtright 1985, p. 163) For Dating of thepañcāyatana pūjā and its connection withSmārta Brahmins.
Bhattacharyya, S., "Indian Hymnology", in:Bhattacharyya 1956, p. 470. Volume VI. For the "five" divinities (pañcādevatā) becoming "the major deities" in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha.
^Thapan 1997, pp. 196–197. Addresses thepañcāyatana in theSmārta tradition and the relationship of theGanesha Purana and theMudgala Purana to it.
^For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see:Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
^Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred toGaṇeśa", in: N.K. Wagle, ed.,Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p. 103.
^R.C. Hazra, "TheGaṇeśa Purāṇa",Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951); 79–99.
^Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor", inBrown 1991, pp. 94–95, note 2.
^Wayman, Alex (2006).Chanting the Names of Manjushri. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p. 76.ISBN8120816536
^abcdWilkinson, Christopher. "The Tantric Ganesa: Text Preserved in the Tibetan Canon." in Brown, Robert L. (editor) (1991)Studies of an Asian God, pp. 235-274. State University of New Ytrrk Pre'ss,Albany
^วัฒนะมหาตม์, กิตติ (November 2011)."พระคเณศไม่ใช่เทพศิลปะ รัชกาลที่ 6 ทรงทำให้เป็นเทพศิลปะ" [Ganesh was not the god of art. King Vajiravudh was the one who made him be one.].ศิลปวัฒนธรรม (Arts and Culture) (in Thai) (November 2011). Retrieved26 May 2020.
Bailey, Greg (1995).Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index. Harrassowitz.ISBN978-3447036474.
Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956).The Cultural Heritage of India. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.ISBN9788185843056.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Four volumes.
Courtright, Paul B. (1985),Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings, New York: Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195057423
Ellawala, H (1969),Social History of Early Ceylon, Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs.
Getty, Alice (1936).Gaṇeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God (1992 reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN978-8121503778.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Śāstri Khiste,Baṭukanātha (1991),Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta 'khadyota' vārtika sahita,Vārāṇasī: Prācya Prakāśana. Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
Śāstri, Hargovinda (1978),Amarkoṣa with Hindi commentary, Vārānasi: Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office
Thapan, Anita Raina (1997).Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers.ISBN978-8173041952.
