Galicians (Galician:galegos[ɡaˈleɣʊs] orpobo galego; Spanish:gallegos[ɡaˈʎeɣos]) are an ethnic group[7][8] primarily residing inGalicia, northwestIberian Peninsula. Historical emigration resulted in populations in other parts of Spain, Europe, and the Americas. Galicians possess distinct customs,culture, language,music, dance, sports, art,cuisine, andmythology.Galician, a Romance language derived from the Latin of ancient RomanGallaecia, is their native language and a primary cultural expression. It shares a common origin withPortuguese, exhibiting 85% intelligibility, and similarities with other Iberian Romance languages like Asturian and Spanish. They are closely related to thePortuguese people.[9][10] TwoRomance languages are widely spoken and official in Galicia: the nativeGalician andSpanish.[11]
Theethnonym of the Galicians (galegos) derives directly from the LatinGallaeci orCallaeci, itself an adaptation of the name of a local Celtic tribe[12][13][14] known to the Greeks as Καλλαϊκoί (Kallaikoí). They lived in what is now Galicia and northernPortugal and were defeated by the Roman GeneralDecimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in the 2nd century BCE and later conquered byAugustus.[15] The Romans later applied that name to all the people who shared the sameculture andlanguage in the north-west, from theDouro River valley in the south to theCantabrian Sea in the north and west to theNavia River. That encompassed such tribes as theCeltici, theArtabri, theLemavi and theAlbiones.
The oldest known inscription referring to the Gallaeci (readingἜθνο[υς] Καλλαικῶ[ν], "people of the Gallaeci") was found in 1981 in theSebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey; a triumphal monument to Roman Emperor Augustus mentions them among other 15 nations that he conquered.[16]
The etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such asIsidore of Seville, who wrote, "Galicians are called so because of their fair skin, as the Gauls" and related the name to the Greek word for "milk," γάλα (gála). However, modern scholars like J.J. Moralejo[15] and Carlos Búa[17] have derived the name of the ancientCallaeci either fromProto-Indo-European *kl̥(H)‑n‑ 'hill', through a local relationalsuffix-aik-, also attested inCeltiberian language and so meaning 'the highlanders'; or either fromProto-Celtic *kallī- 'forest' and so means 'the forest (people)'.[18]
Another recent proposal comes from the linguistFrancesco Benozzo, who is not specialized in Celtic languages and identified the rootgall- /kall- in a number of Celtic words with the meaning "stone" or "rock", as follows:gall (old Irish),gal (Middle Welsh),gailleichan (Scottish Gaelic),galagh (Manx) andgall (Gaulish). Hence, Benozzo explains the nameCallaecia and its ethnonymCallaeci as being "the stone people" or "the people of the stone" ("those who work with stones"), in reference to the ancientmegaliths and stone formations that are so common in Galicia and Portugal.[19] Specialists of the Celtic languages do not consider there is a hypothetical Gaulish root*gall meaning "stone" or "rock", but*galiā "strength" (> Frenchgaill-ard "strong"), related to Old Irishgal "berserk rage, war fury", Welshgallu and Bretongalloud "power".[20] It is distinct from Gaulish*cal(l)io- "hoof" or "testicle",[21][22] related to Welshcaill, Bretonkell "testicle" (> Gaulish*caliavo > Old Frenchchaillou, Frenchcaillou),[21][23] all from theProto-Indo-European root*kal- "hard hardness" (perhaps via suffixed zero-grade *kl̥H-no-(m)). For instance, in Latincallum "hard or thick substance" is also found and so both E. Rivas and Juan J. Moralejo relate the toponymGallaecia /Callaecia with the Latin wordcallus.[24]
A comparative map of Galicia showing speakers of Galician as first language in 2001 and 2011, Galician Institute of Statistics.La Romería (the pilgrimage), Sorolla, 1915
Medieval or Old Galician, known linguistically asGalician-Portuguese, evolved in the Northwest Iberian Peninsula fromVulgar Latin, becoming the written and spoken language of the medievalGalicia andPortugal. This language developed a notableliterary tradition from the late 12th century and gradually replaced Latin in public and private documents in Galicia, Portugal, and neighboring regions.[26]
From the 15th century, Galician-Portuguese diverged into Galician and Portuguese. Galician evolved primarily as a regional spoken language influenced byCastilian Spanish, while Portuguese became an international language. Despite this divergence, the two languages remain closely related, particularly northern Portuguese dialects and Galician.[26] TheRoyal Galician Academy, the official regulatory institution for the Galician language, considers modern Galician an independent Ibero-Romance language closely related toPortuguese, particularly itsnorthern dialects.
While Galician has official recognition, its socio-linguistic development faces the increasing influence of Spanish and a persistent linguistic erosion due to media and the legal imposition of Spanish in education.[citation needed]
Galicia also maintains a significantliterary andoral tradition of songs, tales, and sayings, contributing to the spread and development of the Galician language, sharing commonalities with that of Portugal.[citation needed]
Because of the settlement of Galiciancolonists in southern Spain during theReconquista, some of the more frequent and distinctively Galician surnames also became popular in Spanish (which had its own related forms) and were taken later into theAmericas, as a consequence of the expansion of theSpanish empire:
Some Galician patronymical surnames
English name
Old Galician (13-15th c.)
Modern Galician
Spanish
John
Eanes
Anes, Oanes, Yanes
Yáñez, Ibáñez
Stephen
Esteuaes, Esteuaez, Esteueez
Estévez
Estévanez
-
Froes, Froez
Fróiz, Frois
Flores, Flórez
Julian
Giançe, Gianz, Gians
Giance
Juliánez
Ermengild
Meendez, Meendes
Méndez
Menéndez, Meléndez
Martin
Martiiz
Martíns, Martís
Martínez
Michael
Migueez
Miguéns, Míguez
Miguélez
Pelagius
Paaez, Paaz
Páes, Paiz, Paz
Peláez
-
Veasques, Vaasquez
Vázquez
Velázquez, Blázquez
Benedict
Beeytez, Beeytes
Viéitez, Vieites
Benítez
Mediaeval Galician inscription in a 14th-century house, inNoia: "ESTAS CASAS MANDOU FAZER VASCO DACOSTA, ERA DE MCCCLXXVII"These houses were ordered by Vasco Dacosta,era 1377 (1339 CE)
The largest surname group is the one derived from toponyms, which usually referred to the place of origin or residence of the bearer. These places can be European countries (as is the case in the surnamesBretaña,Franza,España,Portugal) or nations (Franco, "Frenchman"); Galician regions (Bergantiños,Carnota,Cavarcos,Sanlés); or cities, towns or villages, which gave origin to a few thousand surnames. Another related group is formed with theprepositionde, usually contracted with the definite article asda ordo, and a commonappellative:Dacosta (orDa Costa), "of the slope",Dopazo orDo Pazo ("of the palace/manor house");Doval, "of the valley" (cfr. FrenchDuval),Daponte ("of the bridge"),Davila ("of the town", not to be confused with SpanishDávila),Daporta ("of the gate");Dasilva ("of the forest"),Dorrío ("of the river"),Datorre ("of the Tower"). Throughrebracketing, some of these surnames gave origin to others such asAcosta orAcuña.
A few of these toponymic surnames can be considerednobiliary, as they first appear as the name of some Galician noble houses,[29] later expanding when these nobles began to serve as officials of theSpanish Empire, in Spain or elsewhere, as a way of maintaining them both far from Galicia and useful to the Empire:Andrade (from the house of Andrade, itself from the name of a village),Mejía orMexía (from the house ofMesía),Saavedra,Soutomaior (HispanicizedSotomayor),Ulloa,Moscoso,Mariñas,Figueroa among others. Some of these families also served in Portugal, as the Andrade, Soutomaior orLemos (who originated inMonforte de Lemos). As a result, these surnames are by now distributed all around the world.
The third group of surnames are the occupational ones, derived from thejob orlegal status of the bearer:Ferreiro ("Smith"),Carpinteiro ("Carpenter"),Besteiro ("Crossbow bearer"),Crego ("Priest"),Freire ("Friar"),Faraldo ("Herald"),Pintor ("Painter"),Pedreiro ("Stonemason"),Gaiteiro ("Bagpiper"); and alsoCabaleiro ("Knight"),Escudeiro ("Esquire"),Fidalgo ("Nobleman"),Juiz ("Judge").
The fourth group includes the surnames derived from nicknames, which can have very diverse motivations:
a) External appearance, as eye colour (Ruso, from Latin roscidus,grey-eyed;Garzo,blue-eyed), hair colour (Dourado, "Blonde";Bermello, "Red";Cerviño, literally "deer-like", "Tawny, Auburn";Cao, "white"), complexion (Branco, "White";Pardo, "Swarth";Delgado, "Slender") or other characteristics:Formoso ("Handsome"),Tato ("Stutterer"),Forte ("Strong"),Calviño ("Bald"),Esquerdeiro ("Left-handed").
b) Temperament and personality:Bonome,Bonhome ("Goodman"),Fiúza ("Who can be trusted"),Guerreiro ("Warlike"),Cordo ("Judicious").
c) Tree names:Carballo ("Oak");Amieiro,Ameneiro ("Alder");Freijo ("Ash tree").
Many Galician surnames have becomeCastilianized over the centuries, most notably after the forced submission of the Galician nobility obtained by theCatholic Monarchs in the last years of the 15th century.[30] This reflected the gradual spread of theSpanish language through the cities, inSantiago de Compostela,Lugo,A Coruña,Vigo andFerrol, in the last case due to the establishment of an important base of theSpanish navy there in the 18th century.[31] For example, surnames likeOrxás,Veiga,Outeiro, becameOrjales,Vega,Otero. Toponyms likeOurense,A Coruña,Fisterra becameOrense,La Coruña,Finisterre. In many cases this linguistic assimilation created confusion, for exampleNiño da Aguia (Galician:Eagle's Nest) was translated into Spanish asNiño de la Guía (Spanish: the Guide's child) andMesón do Bento (Galician:Benedict's house) was translated asMesón del Viento (Spanish: House of Wind).
Neolithic dolmen of Dombate, roughly contemporary withStonehenge. Originally it was under a tumulus covered by stones rich inmica
The oldest human occupation of Galicia dates to thePalaeolithic, when Galicia was covered by a dense oaktemperate rain forest. The oldest human remains found, atChan do Lindeiro, are from a woman who lived some 9,300 years ago and died because of a landslide, apparently while leading a pack of threeaurochs; the genetic study of her remains revealed a woman that was an admixture ofWestern Hunter-Gatherer andMagdalenian people.[32] This type of admixture has been observed in France, also.[33]
Later on, some 6,500 years ago, anew population arrived from theMediterranean, bringingagriculture andhusbandry with them. Half of the woodland was razed to pasture and farmland, almost replacing all of the woodland some 5,000 years ago.[34] This new population also changed the landscape with the first permanent human structures, megaliths such asmenhirs,barrows andcromlechs. During the Neolithic Galicia was one of the foci ofAtlantic EuropeanMegalithic Culture,[35] putting in contact the Mediterranean and southIberia with the rest of Atlantic Europe.[36]
Some 4,500 years ago a new culture and population arrived and presumingly admixed with the local farmers, theBell beaker people, coming ultimately from thePontic steppe, who introducedcopper metallurgy andweaponry, and probably also newcultivars andbreeds. Some scholars consider that they were the first people to bringIndo-European languages into Western Europe.[37] They lived in openvillages, only protected by fences or ditches; local archaeologists consider that they caused a very large culture impact, replacingcollectivism withindividualism, as exemplified by their burial in individualcists, along with the reuse of old Neolithic tombs.[38] From this period and later dates a rich tradition ofpetroglyphs, which find close similarities in the British Isles, Scandinavia ornorthern Italy.[39] Motives includecup and ring marks,labyrinths, Bronze Age weaponry,deer and deer hunting, warriors, riders andships.
Early Bronze Age
Outeiro do cribo ('sieve's hill') labyrinth
Castriño de Conxo, Bronze Age weaponry
Laxe dos Carballos, deer hunting with leaf-shaped spears andcup and ring marks
Casota de Freáns,Vimianzo, aBronze Age megalith with no corridor or tumulus
Caldas de Reis hoard, one of the largest in Western Europe, circa 1,800 BCE
Interior of a Bronze Age cabin (recreation),Campo Lameiro
During the Late Bronze Age and until 800-600 BCE the contacts with both southern Spain to the south, andArmorica and theAtlantic Isles to the north, intensified, probably fuelled by the abundance of local gold and metals such astin,[40] which allowed the production of high qualitybronze. It is at this moment that began the deposition or hoarding of prestige items, frequently in aquatic context. Also, during the Late Bronze Age a new type of ceremonialhenge-like ring structures, of some 50 metres in diameter, are built all along Galicia.[41]
This period and interchange network, usually known asAtlantic Bronze Age, which appears to have had its centre in modern-dayBrittany, was proposed byJohn T. Koch andSir Barry Cunliffe as the one that originatedCeltic languages —as a product of pre-existing and closely related Indo-European languages— which could have expanded along with the elite ideology associated with this cultural complex (Celtic from the west theory). Alleged difficulties with this theory and with pre-existing theories ("Celtic from the east") have led Patrick Simms-Williams to propose an intermediate "Celtic from the centre" theory, with an expansion of Celtic languages from the Alps during the Bronze Age.[42] A recent study shows the large scale admixture of an earlier population from Britain with people arriving probably from France during the late Bronze Age. These people, in the opinion of the authors, constitute a plausible vector for the expansion of Celtic languages into Britain, as no further Iron Age people movement of relevant scale is shown in their data.[43]
Late Bronze Age
Late Bronze Age hoard of Samieira, unearthed in 1948 at some 50 metres from the seashore, and initially consisting of 152palstaves
1. sword and girdle. 3. v-notch shield. 4. cart with horses
Horned-helmet figures
A rider
The Bronze Age - Iron Age transition (locally 1000-600 BCE) coincides with the hoarding of large quantity of bronze axes, unused, both in Galicia,Brittany, and southernBritain.[44] During this same transitional period, some communities began to protect their villages, settling in very protected areas where they builthill-forts. Among the oldest of these areChandebrito inNigrán,[45]Penas do Castelo inA Pobra do Brollón[46] andO Cociñadoiro inArteixo, on a sea cliff and protected by a 3-metre-tall wall, it was also a metal factory, perhaps[47] dedicated to the Atlantic commerce,[48] all of them founded some 2,900-2,700 years ago. These earlier fortified settlements seem to be placed to control metallurgical resources and commerce. This transitional period is also characterized by the apparition oflonghouses of ultimately north European tradition[49][50][51] which were replaced later in much of Galicia byroundhouses. By the 4th century BCE hill-forts have expanded all along Galicia, also on lowlands, soon becoming the only type of settlements.
These hill-forts were delimited usually by one or more walls; the defences also include ditches, ramparts and towers, and could define several habitable spaces. The gates were also heavily fortified. Inside, houses were originally built with perishable materials, with or without a stonefooting; later on they were entirely made with stone walls, having up to two storeys. Specially in the south, houses or public spaces were adorned with carved stones and warrior sculptures. Stone heads, mimicking severed heads, are found at several locations and were perhaps placed near the gates of the forts. A number of public installations are known, for examplesaunas of probable ritual use.[52] Of ritual use and great value were also items such as bronze cauldrons, richly figured sacrificial hatchets[53] and gold torcs, of which more than a hundred exemplars are known.[54]
This culture is now known asCastro Culture; another characteristic of this culture is the absence of known burials: just exceptionallyurns with ashes have been found buried at foundational sites, acting probably as protectors.
Sacrificial hatchet showing an ox, cauldron and torc
Short swords
Local ear pendants of ultimate Mediterranean origin
Occasional contacts with Mediterranean navigators, since the last half of the second millennium BCE,[55] became common after the 6th century BCE[56] and the voyage ofHimilco.Punic importations from southern Spain became frequent along the coast of southern Galicia, although they didn't penetrate very far to the north or to the interior; also, new decorative motives, as thesix-petal rosettes, are popularized, together with new metallurgical techniques and pieces (ear pendants) and some other innovations as the round hand mill. In exchange, Punics obtainedtin, abundant in the islands and peninsulas of western Galicia (probable origin of theCassiterides island myth)[57] and probably also gold. Incidentally,Avienus'Ora Maritima says afterHimilco that theOestrymni (inhabitants of western Iberia) usedhide boats to navigate, an assertion confirmed byPliny the Elder for the Galicians.[58]
Fibrarum, et pennæ, divinarumque sagacem Flammarum misit dives Callæcia pubem, Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis, Nunc, pedis alterno percussa verbere terra, Ad numerum resonas gaudentem plaudere cætras. Hæc requies ludusque viris, ea sacra voluptas. Cetera femineus peragit labor: addere sulco Semina, et inpresso tellurem vertere aratro Segne viris: quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum, Callaici conjux obit inrequieta mariti.
Gallaecians vs. Romans. Reenactors inXinzo de Limia,Festa do Esquecemento
"Opulent Galicia sent her youth, expert in divination through the entrails of beasts, the flight of birds and the divine lightnings; sometimes they delight to chant rude songs in their fatherland's tongues, other times they make the ground tremble with alternative foot while happily clashing theircaetra at the same time. This leisure and diversion is a sacred delight for the men, the feminine laboriosity do the rest: adding the seed to the furrow and working the ground with the plough while the men idle. Everything which must be done, with the exception of the hard war, is made restlessly by the wife of the Galician." He later also mentions theGrovii of southern Galicia and northwestern Portugal, with their capitalTui, apart from the other Galicians; other authors also marked the distinctness of the Grovii: Pomponius Mela by addressing that they were non Celtic, unlike the rest of the inhabitants of the coasts of Galicia; Pliny by signalling their Greek origin.[59]
After ending victoriously theLusitanian war with the assassination ofViriathus, consulCaepio tried to wage war, unsuccessfully, on Gallaecians andVettones, for the help they lent to the Lusitanians. In 138 BCE, another consul,Decimus Junius Brutus, in command of two legions, passed deDouro river and later the Lethes or Oblivio (Limia, which frightened his troops because of its othername), in a successful campaign, managing to conquer many places of the Galicians. After reaching theMinho river, and in his way back, he attacked (again successfully) theBracari, who had been harassing hissupply chain:Appian describe the Bracari women fighting bravely side by side with their men; of the women who were taken prisoners, some killed themselves, and others killed their children, preferring death to servitude.[59] Thespoils of war allowed Decimus Junius Brutus to celebrate atriumph back in Rome, receiving the nameCallaicus. Recently a very large marchingRoman camp was discovered at high altitude, in Lomba do Mouro, at the very frontier of Galicia with Portugal. In 2021 aC-14 dating showed that it was built during the 2nd century BCE; since it is north of the Limia, it probably belonged to this campaign.[60]
The Roman contact had a very large impact on the Castro Culture: an increase in commerce with the south and the Mediterranean; adoption or development of sculpture and stone carving; thewarrior ethos appear to increase in social importance;[61] some hill-forts are built new or rebuilt as true urban centres,oppida, with streets and definite public spaces, asSan Cibrao de Las (10ha) orSanta Trega (20 ha).[62]
In 61 BCEJulius Caesar, commanding thirtycohorts, launched fromCádiz a maritime campaign along the Atlantic shores which ended inBrigantium. According toCassius Dio, the locals, who had never seen a Roman fleet, surrendered in awe. Recent excavations at theCastro de Elviña hillfort, near A Coruña, have found both evidences of siege and partial destruction of the walls of the site, and also of a temple, dated to the middle of the first century BCE.[63]
Finally, in 29 BCE,Augustus launched a campaign of conquest against Gallaecians, Asturians and Cantabrians. The most memorable episode of this war was the siege on the Mons Medullius, whoPaulus Orosius placed near theMinho river: it was surrounded by a 15 mille trench before a simultaneous Roman advance; according toAnneus Florus the besieged decided to kill themselves, by fire, sword, or by the venon of theyew tree.[64] Tens of Roman camps have been found related to this war, most of them corresponding to the later stages of the war, against Asturians and Cantabrians, some twenty of them in Galicia.[65] Augustus' victory over the Gallaecians is celebrated in theSebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey, where a triumphal monument toAugustus mentions them[66] among other fifteen nations conquered by him. Also, thetriumphal arch ofCapentras probably represents a Gallaecian among other nations defeated by Augustus.[67]
Pomponius Mela (a geographer from Tingentera, modern dayAlgeciras in Andalusia) described, circa 43 CE, the coasts of northwestern Iberia:[68]
Frons illa aliquamdiu rectam ripam habet, dein modico flexu accepto mox paululum eminet, tum reducta iterum iterumque recto margine iacens ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus extenditur. Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent. Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est. In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres. In Artabris sinus ore angusto admissum mare non angusto ambitu excipiens Adrobricam urbem et quattuor amnium ostia incingit: duo etiam inter accolentis ignobilia sunt, per alia Ducanaris exit et Libyca
Iberia circa 300 BCE
"That ocean front for some distance has a straight bank, then, having taken a slight bend, soon protrudes a little bit and then it is drawn back, and again and again; then, lying on a straight line, the coast extends to the promontory which we call Celtic. All of it is inhabited by Celtics, except from the Durio until the bend, where the Grovi dwelt —and through them flow the rivers Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius and Limia, also called Oblivio—. On the bend there is the city of Lambriaca and the receding part receives the rivers Laeros and Ulia. The prominent part is inhabited by the Praestamarci, and through them flow the rivers Tamaris and Sars —which are born not afar— Tamaris by harbour Ebora, Sars by the tower of Augustus, of memorable title. For the rest, the Supertamarici and Neri inhabit in the last tract. Up to here what belongs to the western coast. From there all the coast is turned to the north, from the Celtic promontory to the Pyrenees. Its regular coast, except where there are small retreats and small headlands, is almost straight by the Cantabrians. On it first of all are the Artabri, still a Celtic people, then the Astures. Among the Artabri there is a bay which lets the sea through a narrow mouth, and encircles, not in a narrow circuit, the city of Adrobrica and the mouth of four rivers." The Atlantic and northern coast of today's Galicia was inhabited by Celtic peoples, with the exception of the southern extreme. Others geographers and authors (Pliny, Strabo), as well as the local Latin epigraphy, confirm the presence of Celtic peoples.
As for the language or languages spoken by the Galicians previously to theirromanization, most scholars usually perceive a primitiveIndo-European layer, another later one hardly distinguishable from Celtic and identifiable withLusitanian, most notable in the south, the Gallaecia Bracarense (as a result, Lusitanian is sometimes calledLusitanian-Gallaecian) and finally Celtic proper; as stated by Alberto J. Lorrio:[69] "the presence of Celtic elements in the Northwest is indisputable, but there is no unanimity in considering whether there was an only Indo-European language in the West of Iberia, of Celtic kind, or either a number of languages derived from the arrival of non-Celtic Indo-Europeans first, and Celts later on". Some academic positions on this issue:
Francesco Benozzo, proponent of thePalaeolithic continuity theory, considers that Celtic language is autochthonous in Galicia.[70] Since recent genetic studios show that European and Iberian Palaeolithic population was assimilated by larger migrant populations proceeding first from the Balkans andAnatolia, and later from Central Europe and ultimately from thePontic steppe, this theory is probably flawed.
ForJohn T. Koch andBarry Cunliffe, proponent of theCeltic from the West theory, the Celtic language would have expanded during the late Bronze Age from the European Atlantic fringe, including Galicia, to the east.[71][72][73] For Patrick Simms-Williams, Celtic expanded from modern day France during the late Bronze Age.[42]
Joan Coromines, lexicographer and author of theDiccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, considered that Galician language had a very important substrate attributable to at least two different Indo-European languages, an older non Celtic one who he derived from theUrnfield people and thought was present in most of northern Iberia, and another one he namedArtabrian, the Celtic language of the Celts of Galicia.
Joaquín Gorrochategui, José M. Vallejo,[78] Alberto J. Lorrio, García Alonso,[79] E. Luján[80] and others, consider that Lusitanian is not a Celtic language, but they don't consider it closer to Italic, neither, but part of a group of IE dialects which later evolved into Celtic, Italic and Lusitanian. On the other hand, Celtic speakers lived in close proximity to the Lusitanian. In this context, Gallaecia Bracarensis was clearly in communion with the Lusitania,[81] while Gallaecia Lucensis had its own Celtic profile.[82][83][84][85][86]
Jürgen Untermann, continued by his disciple Carlos Búa,[87] defended that along the westernmost part of Iberia there was essentially just one language or group of languages, Gallaecian-Lusitanian or Lusitanian and Gallaecian, which in their opinion was definitely Celtic and not Italoid, as shown by the ending of dative plural (-bo, -bor < PIE -*bhos) and the evolution of thesyllabic consonants, in particular -r̥- > -ri-.
Local scholars and researchers of toponymy and lexicon of pre-Latin origin (J. J. Moralejo, Edelmiro Bascuas) saw at least two layers of Indo-Europeans: one early layer of a very primitive IE language which preserved p, most notable in river names, and a later Celtic layer.[88][89]
After the Roman conquest, the lands and people of northwestern Iberia were divided in threeconventi (Gallaecia Lucensis,Gallaecia Bracarensis and Asturia) and annexed to the province ofHispania Tarraconensis.[90] Pliny wrote that the Lucenses comprised 16populi and 166,000 free heads, and mentions theLemavi,Albiones,Cibarci, EgivarriNamarini, Adovi,Arroni, Arrotrebae, Celtici Neri,Celtici Supertamarci, Copori,Celtici Praestamarci,Cileni among them (other authors mention also the Baedui,Artabri andSeurri); theAstures comprised 22 populi and 240,000, of whom the Lougei, Gigurri and Tiburi dwelt lands now in Galicia; finally the Bracarenses 24civitates and 285,000, of whom theGrovi, Helleni,Querquerni,Coelerni, Bibali,Limici, Tamacani andInteramici dwelt, at least partially, in modern-day Galicia. The names of some of these peoples have been preserved as the names of regions, parishes and villages:Lemos < Lemavos, Cabarcos, Soneira < *Sub Nerii, Céltigos < Celticos,Valdeorras < Valle de Gigurris,Trives < Tiburis, Támagos < Tamacanos. Some other Galician regions derive from some populi or subdivision not listed by the classic authors, among them: Bergantiños < Brigantinos, fromBriganti, Nendo < Nemetos, fromNemeton, Entíns < Gentinis ('the chieftains').[91]
A common characteristic of both Gallaecians and western Astures were their onomastic formula and social structure: while most of the other Indo-European peoples of Hispania used a formula such as:
Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + Gens / Family (gen. pl.), as, for example,
Turaesius Letondicum Marsi f(ilius) : 'Turaesius son of Marsi, of the Letondi clan'
Roman works of Montefurado (Pierced Mountain), which diverted the course of the river Sil
Gallaecians and western Astures used, until the 2nd century of our era, the formula:[92]
Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + [Populi/Civitas] (nom. s.) + [⊃] (abreviature ofcastellum) Origo (abl. s.) as:
Nicer Clvtosi ⊃ Cavriaca Principis Albionum :Nicer, son of Clutosios, from castle Cauria, prince of the Albion
Caeleo Cadroiolonis f(ilius) Cilenus ⊃ Berisamo :Cailio, son of Cadroilo, Cilenus from castle Berisamo
Fabia Eburi f(ilia) Lemava ⊃ Eritaeco :Fabia, daughter of Eburios, Lemava from castle Eritaico
Eburia Calueni f(ilia) Celtica Sup(ertamarca) ⊃ Lubri :Eburia, daughter of Calugenos, Celtica Supertamarca from castle Lubris
Anceitus Vacc[e]i f(ilius) limicus ⊃ Talabrig(a) :Anceitos, son of Vacceos, Limicus from castle Talabriga
The known personal names used by locals in northern Gallaecia were largely Celtic:[93]Aio,Alluquius,Ambatus,Ambollus,Andamus,Angetus,Arius,Artius,Atius,Atia,Boutius,Cadroiolo,Caeleo,Caluenus,Camalus,Cambauius,Celtiatus,Cloutaius,Cloutius,Clutamus,Clutosius,Coedus,Coemia,Coroturetis,Eburus,Eburia,Louesus,Medamus,Nantia,Nantius,Reburrus,Secoilia,Seguia,Talauius,Tridia,Vecius,Veroblius,Verotus,Vesuclotus, among others.
Also, Gallaecia and Asturia became the most important producers of gold on the Empire: according toPliny Lusitania, Gallaecia and, especially, Asturia, produced the equivalent to 6,700 kg per year. It has been estimated that the eight hundred Roman gold mines known in Galicia produced in total in between 190,000 and 2,000,000 kg.[96]
In 409 theVandals,Suebi andAlans, who had entered in the Roman Empire in 405 or 406crossing the Rhine, passed into the Iberian Peninsula. After a year of war and plundering, they were pacified by the offering of lands where to settle. The Roman province of Gallaecia (including Gallaecia proper and the regions ofAsturia and Cantabria) were assigned to the Suebi and theHasding Vandals. Both groups clashed soon, in 419, and so the Vandals left to southern Iberia, where they incorporated the last remnants of Alans andSilingi Vandals, who had been crushed by Rome in previous years. In 429 the Vandals left for Africa.[97][98]
In 430 a long term conflict broke in between the Suebi and locals who chroniclerHydatius calledgallaecos (i.e.galegos, the endonym of modern-day Galicians) and, initially,plebs ("folk, common people"), in contrast with whom he calledromani: the rural landowners in Lusitania and the inhabitants of the cities. Soon, among those Galicians, appear also local noblemen and churchmen. As theBritons in southern Great Britain, the Galician were forced to act autonomously from Rome, exercising home rule.[99] They reoccupied old Iron Age hill-forts and built new strongholds andfortification all along Galicia;[100] the largest known today are at Mt. Pindo,[101] Mt. Aloia[102] and at Castro Valente.[103] These fortresses were later used by locals against Visigoths,Arabs andNorsemen. In this conflict in between Galicians and Suebi, Rome and local bishops acted frequently rather asintermediaries than as a part, and peace our truce was obtained or warranted with the interchange of prisoners andhostages.[97][104]
In 438 both people attained a peace that would last for twenty years; by then old kingHermeric, who had led their people at least since their arrival fromCentral Europe, ceded the crown to his sonRechila, who would expand the kingdom to the south and east, conqueringEmerita Augusta,Mértola andSeville, and moving his troops into eastern Hispania, defeating both Roman andVisigoth armies along the way. His successor and son,Rechiar, converted frompaganism to Catholicism upon being crowned, and married a Visigoth princess. He negotiated with Rome a new status for his kingdom and became the first post-Roman Germanic king to mint coins in his name.[105] Soon, he tried to expand into the last Roman province in Hispania,Tarraconense; eventually this led to open conflict with Rome and the Visigoths. In 456 a large army offoederati commanded by the kings of the Visigoths and theBurgundians entered Hispania and defeated the Suebi army near the city ofLeón. Rechiar fled toPorto, but he was captured and later executed. Notwithstanding, the Visigoths left in a hurry the theatre of operation, returning to France. That allowed the Suebi to regroup. After a period ofpetty-kings rivalry, accompanied by devastation and pillage on Galicians,Remismund was recognized as only and legitimate king by the Suebi, and accepted by the Visigoths; he also promoted theArianism among the Suebi. As result, the Suebi kingdom came to its limits, encompassing modern day Galicia, northern Portugal untilCoimbra, and large parts ofAsturias,León andZamora.[105]
The chronicle of Hydatius also records naval raids of both Vandals andHeruli on the Galician coasts during the 5th century.[97]
In 718 the area briefly came under the control of the Moors after their conquest and dismantling of the Visigothic Empire, but the Galicians successfully rebelled against Moorish rule in 739, establishing a renewedKingdom of Galicia which would become totally stable after 813 with the medieval popularization of the"Way of St James".
The autonomous community, a concept established in theSpanish constitution of 1978, that is known as (a)Comunidade Autónoma Galega in Galician, and as (la)Comunidad Autónoma Gallega in Spanish (in English:Galician Autonomous Community), is composed of the four Spanish provinces ofA Coruña,Lugo,Ourense, andPontevedra.
The official statistical body of Galicia is theInstituto Galego de Estatística (IGE). According to the IGE, Galicia's total population in 2008 was 2,783,100 (1,138,474 inA Coruña,[106] 355.406 inLugo,[107] 336.002 inOurense,[108] and 953.218 inPontevedra[109]). The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centres, areVigo (in Pontevedra),Pontevedra,Santiago de Compostela,A Coruña,Ferrol (in A Coruña),Lugo (in Lugo), andOurense (in Ourense). The official languages are Galician and Spanish. Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory according to the Spanish constitution and virtually universal. Knowledge of Galician, after declining for many years owing to the pressure of Spanish and official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.[citation needed] Currently about 82% of Galicia's population can speak Galician[110] and about 61% have it as a mother tongue.[11]
As a Celtic region of Spain, Galicia has a tartan called Galicia National.[122]
During the late 19th and early 20th century this revival permeated Galician society: in 1916Os Pinos, a poem by Eduardo Pondal, was chosen as the lyrics for the new Galician hymn. One of the strophes of the poem says:Galicians, be strong / ready to great deeds / align your breast / for a glorious end / sons of the noble Celts / strong and traveller / fight for the fate / of the homeland ofBreogán.[123] The Celtic past became an integral part of the self-perceived Galician identity:[124] as a result an important number of cultural association and sport clubs received names related to the Celts, among themCelta de Vigo,Céltiga FC,CB Breogán, etc.
Galician Celtic Revival:Homes de Brigantia ('Men of Brigantia'), by Camilo Díaz Baliño (1922)
From the 1970s on a series of Celtic music and cultural festivals were also popularized, the most notable being theFestival Internacional do Mundo Celta deOrtigueira, at the same time that Galician folk musical bands and interpreters became usual participants in Celtic festivals elsewhere, as in the Interceltic festival of Lorient, where Galicia sent its first delegation in 1976.[125]
Celtic and non Celtic elements common along the western Atlantic coast of Europe which are popularly perceived as Celtic.
Before the world was inhabited by humans, animals could speak: many traditional tales about animals begin with the phrasealó cando os animais falaban, 'back then, when animals used to speak', which has become equivalent to Englishonce upon a time.
Our world is connected to anunderworld dwelt by themouros ('the dark ones' or perhaps 'the dead ones', mistaken by AndalusianMoors in many tales), an ancient and sombre race who inhabited the upper world before ourselves and who dislike humans. They can still travel to our world to interact with us through the ruins of the places they built or inhabited, such asbarrows,dolmens,stone circles,hill-forts, etc., which are still traditionally called with names such asEira dos Mouros ('Mouros'threshing floor'),Casa dos Mouros ('Mouros'house'),Forno dos Mouros ('Mouros'oven'). This kind of place names are already attested in Latin documents dating to circa 900 CE and later. Humans can also travel to the underworld, either becoming very rich or suffering for their greed as a result. Somemouros orencantos can appear as tall and strong men riding large horses and there are specific spells to ask them for riches.
Fairies andnymphs (who also belong to the netherworld) receive many names, among themmouras,encantos ('apparition; spell'),damas ('ladies'),madamas ('miladies'),xás (from Latindianas). They are frequently portrayed as women of incredible beauty and riches and long golden blonde hair that can be found by the aforementioned prehistoric ruins or at fountains and ponds, where they comb their hair. Other times, they are gigantic women of incredible strength, enough to move massive boulders, who can be found with a spinning distaff or a baby.[127] Under this appearance they are the same with theVella ("the Old Lady"), who is somehow also responsible for the weather: therainbow is calledarco da vella in Galician ("Old Lady's bow"), a myth which is probably related to theCailleach, 'Old Woman', 'Hag', of Ireland and Scotland.[128]
Lavandeiras (washerwomen) are eerie fairies that are found at a river of pond washing clothes, under the aspect of women, especially at night. They can ask a passer-by to help twist the clothes: if the passer-by mistakenly twists in the same direction, the clothes turn into blood.[126]
Thetrasnos,tardos ortrasgos (goblins) are mischievous,household creatures, who like to annoy and confound people. They can causenightmares by siting on the chest of the people, move things and cause other troubles. In Galiciantrasnada (~'goblin-ery') means 'trick, mischief'.
Other sign of the netherworld is the apparition of a golden hen followed by his golden chicks (a galiña dos pitos de ouro), which, no matter how hard one tries, can't be caught. There is a similar myth inBulgaria.
Maruxaina was a vicioussiren who lived near the town ofSan Cribrao and who eventually was captured and executed by the locals.
The barrows are also inhabited by other entities calledouvas ('elfs').
Other beings with control of the weather are thenubeiros ('cloud-ers').George Borrow in his bookThe Bible in Spain narrates how he met anubeiro while travelling Galicia circa 1835.[129] Other similar beings are thetronantes andescoleres.
Manylakes are believed to be the result of the drowning of ancient cities (frequently calledLucerna,Valverde, 'Green Valley', orAntiochia in tales and legends) when the inhabitants failed to give shelter to Jesus or a saint, or when a king of themouros used his magic out of spit. Some nights the city's bells can still be heard.[126] This legend was first recorded in the 12th centuryCodex Calixtinus and in that version isCharlemagne who prays God and Saint James to drown a Moor city reluctant to commit to him.[130] This myth appear to be related to the Breton myth ofYs.
Another mythical being associated with drowned cities is theboi bruador, a bellowing ox which can be heard at night near lakes, a legend first recorded circa 1550.[126]
Olláparos are giants similar tocyclopes who sometimes have also an eye on the back of the head.[126] They are related to theCantabrianOjáncanu.
Bruxas andmeigas (witches) can take the form of animals. In particular, thechuchonas ('suckers') can take the form of a blowfly to feed on the blood of babies and children, causinganaemia.
Lobishomes (werewolves) are humans who sometimes turn into wolves because of a curse.[131]Manuel Blanco Romasanta was a Galicianserial killer sentenced to death in 1853 for thirteen assassinations. His legal defence was based in his condition of werewolf as consequence of a curse.[132]
Anciently, there were giantserpents (serpe, there's a mountain range calledCova da Serpe, 'Sepents' dem', so named since at least the 10th century), some of them winged, anddragons (dragón) which could feed on cattle. On the legend of the transfer of the body ofSaint James from theHoly Land to Galicia, recorded in the 12th centuryCodex Calixtinus, the local queen,Queen Lupa, commanded the disciples of Saint James to go grab a pair of meek oxen she had by the hill known asPico Sacro ("Sacred Peak"), where a dragon dwelt, with the hope that either the dragon or the oxen (which were actually fierce bulls) would kill them.[130] There were alsococas (cockatrices), which were taken out in procession in certain dates, as attested since 1437.[126] In the town ofRedondela this procession is still held each year.
Santa Compaña (modern graffiti)
Thecompaña ('retinue'),hoste ('army'),estantiga ( <hoste antiga, 'anciente army'),Santa Compaña ('holy retinue') is the local version of thewild hunt. In its modern form is a nocturne procession of the dead, who, porting candles or torches, and frequently a coffin, announce the imminent decease of a neighbour. This procession can "capture" a living person, who is then obliged to precede the Santa Compaña all night long, through forest, streams and brambles, or until another one takes his place. One can protect himself from being taken by the Compaña by tracing a circle and getting inside it, or by throwing oneself to the ground and ignoring the Compaña while it passes over. A solitary phantom related to the Compaña is theestadea. This myth is also related to the fairy host in Ireland,sluagh in Scotland and toili in Wales.[117]
Theurco (güercu inAsturias) is a giant black dog who emerges from the sea or from a river to cause terror to the locals. They are also, per se, a bad omen.[133]
While Galicia was traditionally a profoundlyCatholic society, in its beliefs there are many remnants of previous religious systems, in particular the belief on a pantheon of gods, nowsaints; in the reincarnation in form of an animal, when there are unfinished business; theevil eye and the sickness caused bycurses; the holiness of crossroads and fountains, etcetera. The first attestation of the beliefs of the Galicians in a Christian context is offered by thePannonianMartin of Braga who in his letterDe Correctione Rusticorum condemns, among others, the belief in the Roman gods or in thelamias,nymphs anddianas, and also in practices as putting candles to trees, springs and crossroads.
Sanctuaries are socially important places for pilgrimage (romaría) and devotion, each one under the protection of a saint orvirgin Mary. There are different beliefs associated with each one: the sanctuary ofSanto André de Teixido in Cedeira is associated with reincarnation, as it is said thata Santo André de Teixido vai de morto o que non foi de vivo ('to Saint Andrew at Teixido —yew-tree-copse— goes as dead the ones that didn't went while alive'). It is advised not to kill lizards or any other animal while in the vicinity. TheCorpiño sanctuary nearLalín and San Campío nearTomiño are associated with the treatment of mentalillness and evil eye ormeigallo.Virxe da Barca in Muxía is built by the place where it is said that Mary arrived aboard a stone boat, a recurring myth in Galicia also present in Ireland and Brittany.[134] Many of these places were probably built over pagan cult places.
High crosses andcalvaries, locally namedcruceiros orpeto de ánimas, are usually placed atcrossroads, before sacred places, or marking a pilgrimage road. Placing flowers or lit candles before that monuments are common practices. In 1996 the Galician community in Ushuaia, Argentine, the southernmost city on the world, built acruceiro with the legent 'Galicia shines in this land's end'.
Traditional medicine was administered bymenciñeiros andmenciñeiras, who used both herbs and spells to treat illness. Also compoñedores and compoñedoras: healers specialized in mending bones and joints.
Aside from Catholic feasts and celebrations, there are other annual celebrations ofpagan or mixed origin:
Entroido (Shrovetide,Carnival). TheEntroido ('entering; prelude') is usually a period of indulgence and feasts, which contrast with the soberness of theHoly Week andEaster. Parades and festivals (which were prosecuted by theCatholic Church) are held all along Galicia and, specially inOurense,masks such as thepeliqueiros,cigarróns, boteiros,felos,pantallas, who can commit minor mischiefs to other attendants, are central to the celebrations.
Noite de San Xoán (Saint John's eve). Saint John's eve is celebrated around bonfires which are lit at dusk; young people jump over the fire three, seven or nine times. Other traditions associated to this night is the nine-waves bath in the beach, for having children,[135] and the preparation of theauga de San Xoán (Saint John's water) by letting a bowl with a mixture of selected herbs outdoors all night. This water is used to wash one's face in the morning.
Traditional Galician costume, as understood today, got conformed fundamentally during the second half of the 18th century. Notwithstanding, some very characteristic elements, as themonteira (an embroidered felt hat),breeches andjacket are already present in 16th century depictions.[136] Although there are some regional variance, males attire is generally composed ofmonteira and sometimespano (headcloth),camisa (shirt),chaleco (vest), chaqueta (jacket),faixa (sash),calzón (breeches),cirolas (underwear),polainas (gaiters,spats) andzocas,zocos (clogs orboots).[136]
The most characteristic instrument in traditional music is probably thegaita (bagpipe). The gaita have a conical double-reed chanter, and usually have one to four drones.[137] The bag is usually inflated through a blowpipe, but in thegaita de barquín it is inflated by the operation of a bellows. In the past the gaita was usually accompanied just bytamboril (snare drum) andbombo orcaixa (bass drum), but since the middle of the twentieth century the groups and bands have become very popular. Pieces which are usually interpreted with gaita are themuiñeira, often in6 8 time and very similar to Irishjigs;[138] thealborada, played during the early mornings of holydays; themarcha (march) which accompanies processions and retinues. Some renowned compositions are the 19th centuryMuiñeira de Chantada and the traditionalAires de Pontevedra (an alborada) andMarcha do Antigo Reino de Galicia (March of the Old Kingdom of Galicia).
Another very representative instrument is thepandeireta (tambourine), which along or together with other drums as thepandeiro,castanets, etc., usually accompanied the songs and celebrations of the working women and men during theseráns (evenings),foliadas orfiadas.
Other genres include dealalá, which can be sunga cappella, or thecancións de cego (blindman's songs), interpreted withviolin ofzanfoña.
Galician musics and dancers
Bagpiper with agaita de barquín and musicians with apandeireta andtamboril
Rosalia de Castro was one of the most representatives authors of theRexurdimento (revival of the Galician language).
Eduardo Pondal, considered himself a "bard of freedom", he imagined aCeltic past of freedom and independence, which he tried to recover forGalicia with his poetry.[139]
Manuel Rivas was born inA Coruña. A famous Galician journalist, writer and poet whose work is the most widely translated in the history of Galician literature.
Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro was a monk and scholar who wrote a great collection of essays that cover a range of subjects, from natural history and the then known sciences.
Carlos Núñez is currently one of the most famous Galician bagpipers, who has collaborated with Ry Cooder, Sharon Shannon, Sinéad O'Connor, The Chieftains, Altan among others.
Susana Seivane is a Galician bagpiper. She was born into a family of well-known Galician luthiers and musicians (The Seivane).
Carlos Jean is a DJ and record producer. He was born in Ferrol, of Haitian and Galician heritage.
^Sum of the inhabitants of Spain born in Galicia (c. 2.8 million), plus Spaniards living abroad and inscribed in the electoral census (CERA) as electors in one of the four Galician constituencies.
^abcdefgNot including Galicians born outside Galicia
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^Pierre-Yves Lambert,Histoire de la langue gauloise, éditions Errance, 1994, p. 99 - 194
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^Lorrio, Alberto J (2011). "Los celtas en el occidente de Iberia". In Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero, Jesús R Álvarez-Sanchís (ed.).Castros y verracos: las gentes de la Edad del Hierro en el occidente de Iberia. Ávila: Institución Gran Duque de Alba. p. 70.ISBN978-84-15038-26-9.
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^Prósper, Blanca María (2002).Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la Península Ibérica. Universidad de Salamanca.ISBN978-84-7800-818-6.
^Prósper, Blanca María (2002).Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la Península Ibérica. Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 357–382.ISBN978-84-7800-818-6.
^"Anyway, nothing of what I am going to say precludes the existence of Celtic speakers all along the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal. As a matter of fact, a great deal of evidence, mostly from place names and personal names, points to their presence there. By means of an increasingly refined scrutiny we are able to come up with much Celtic vocabulary never attested in Celtiberian, as well as archaisms in word formation, like the preservation of the simple superlative suffix in —amo-, as well as phonetic changes that Celtiberian never shared, like for instance the loss of/g/ in contact with front vowels."Prósper, Blanca María (2008)."Lusitanian. A Non-Celtic Indo-European Language of Western Hispania".Celtic and other languages in ancient Europe, 2008, págs. 53-64. Servicio de Publicaciones. pp. 53–64.ISBN978-84-7800-335-8.Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved19 January 2022.
^Vallejo, José M. ª (2013)."Hacia una definición del lusitano".Palaeohispanica. Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua (13):273–291.ISSN1578-5386.Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved21 February 2022.
^García Alonso, Juan Luis (1 January 2011)."Oclusivas aspiradas, celtas y lusitanos".A Greek Man in the Iberian Street, Festschrift Javier de Hoz, Juan Luis García Alonso y Eugenio Luján Martínez eds., Innsbruck, pp. 175-190.Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved25 February 2022.
^"we cannot ignore the evidence for the Celtic presence in northern Gallaecia, which is confirmed by ancient authors:Celtici cognomine Neri et Supertamarci (Pliny 4.111),ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus (Mela 3.9);Artabri . . . Celticae gentis (Mela 3.14), and by epigraphy, with mention of certain peoples and individuals who call themselves Celtici, for instance Fusca Coedi f. Celtica Supertamarica.53 For his part, Strabo (3.3.5) mentions, moreover, the close connection of some of these Gallaeci with the Celtici from Baeturia, in the Guadiana area, to the south of Lusitania. This relationship of the Gallaeci to the south-western Celtici, as well as that with Celtiberia (Pliny 3.13), can be demonstrated by some onomastic indicators, such as the special Celtiberian tendency to use duo nomina formulae with a name in -iko on the basis of nomen gentilicium, a fact noted amongst the south-western Celtici (C. Pagusicus Lucianus) and the Gallaeci (Apanicus Capito). Nor should one forget that in northern Gallaecia there are toponyms and ethnonyms which are well justified by Celtic (Nerion, Arotrebae, Albiones, cf. Welsh elfydd 'world', Gaulish Albiorix), as well as dedications to Lugu (Map 12.2), which link it with Celtiberia in particular."Gorrochategui, J.; Vallejo, J. M. (28 February 2019)."The parts of Hispania without epigraphy".Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies. Oxford University Press. pp. 335–364.doi:10.1093/oso/9780198790822.003.0012.ISBN978-0-19-879082-2.Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved23 January 2022.
^"The analysis of Galician place-names attested epigraphically shows that many of them can be considered Celtic."Luján, Eugenio (2008)."Galician Place-Names Attested Epigraphically".Celtic and other languages in ancient Europe, 2008, págs. 65-82. Servicio de Publicaciones. pp. 65–82.ISBN978-84-7800-335-8.Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved18 January 2022.
^"People of this area is divided in three groups: the ones called Celts in old sources, others don't considered Celts and they that haven't ethnic ascription. It is examined each people's ethnic names, place names and onomastics. General conclusions are general admission of these people are Celts, separating Seurri and with doubts over the Grovi. In Ancient Galicia would be Celts superposed to another no-celtic Indoeuropeans strata"Luján, Eugenio (2009)."Pueblos celtas y no celtas de la Galicia antigua: fuentes literarias frente a fuentes epigráficas".Real Académia de Cultura Valenciana: Sección de estudios ibéricos "D. Fletcher Valls". Estudios de lenguas y epigrafía antiguas (9):219–250.ISSN1135-5026.Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved18 January 2022.
^Luján, Eugenio R. (3 May 2006). "The language(s) of the Callaeci".E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies.6:715–748.ISSN1540-4889.
^Búa Carballo, Juan Carlos (14 January 2019).Toponimia prelatina de Galicia. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico.ISBN978-84-17595-07-4.Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved19 July 2021.
^Búa Carballo, Juan Carlos (14 January 2019).Toponimia prelatina de Galicia. Verba. Anexo. Santiago de Compostela: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico.ISBN978-84-17595-07-4.Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved19 July 2021.
^Santos Yanguas, Juan (2009). "De nuevo sobre los Castella: naturaleza, territorio e integración en la Ciuitas". In Kremer, Dieter (ed.).Onomástica galega II : onimia e onomástica prerromana e a situación lingüística do noroeste peninsular: actas do segundo coloquio, Leipzig, 17 3 18 de outubro de 2008. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. pp. 169–183.ISBN978-84-9750-794-3.
^abcLópez Silva, José Antonio (2004).A Crónica de Idacio de Limia (in Galician). Ourense: Deputación de Ourense.ISBN978-84-96011-32-8.
^In tempore sueborum: el tiempo de los suevos en la Gallaecia (411-585): el primer reino medieval de Occidente. Jorge López Quiroga, A. M. Martínez Tejera (eds.). Ourense: Deputación Provincial de Ourense. 2017.ISBN978-84-16643-11-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Isla Frez, Amancio (1992).La sociedad gallega en la alta edad media. Madrid: Consejo superior de investigaciones científicas. p. 14.ISBN84-00-07215-4..
^García Quintela, Marco V (2005). "Celtic Elements in Northwestern Spain in Pre-Roman times".E-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies.6: 74.
^Alberro, Manuel (6 January 2008)."Celtic Legacy in Galicia"(PDF).E-Keltoi.6:1005–1034. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 24 June 2011. Retrieved10 May 2014.
^Wood, Walter; Mason, Frank H. (Frank Henry) (1910).A corner of Spain. London, E. Nash. Retrieved16 February 2022.
^Bell, Aubrey F. G. (Aubrey Fitz Gerald) (1922).Spanish Galicia. London, John Lane. Retrieved16 February 2022.
^"Galegos, sede fortes / prontos a grandes feitos / aparellade os peitos / a glorioso afán / fillos dos nobres celtas / fortes e peregrinos / luitade plos destinos / dos eidos de Breogán" Cf."Himno Gallego".Archived from the original on 14 March 2015. Retrieved10 May 2014.
^Cabon, Alain (2010).Le Festival Interceltique de Lorient: quarante ans au coeur du monde celte. Rennes: Éditions Ouest-France. p. 28.ISBN978-2-7373-5223-2.
^abcdefVaqueiro, Vítor (2010).Mitoloxía de Galiza: lendas, tradicións, maxias, santos e milagres. Vigo: Galaxia.ISBN978-84-9865-387-8.
^"—Ha, ha! I know him. He ran with me to this fountain, where he has just left me. That man, Sir Cavalier, is no thief. If he is any thing at all, he is a Nuveiro,—a fellow who rides upon the clouds, and is occasionally whisked away by a gust of wind. Should you ever travel with that man again, never allow him more than one glass of anise at a time, or he will infallibly mount into the clouds and leave you, and then he will ride and run till he comes to a water brook, or knocks his head against a fountain—then one draught, and he is himself again."George Borrow (1923).The Bible In Spain. John Murray. p. 420. Retrieved18 February 2022.
^abCódice Calixtino: o liber Sancti Iacobi en Galego (in Galician). Translated by Xosé López Díaz (2nd ed.). [Galicia]. 2013. pp. 442–443.ISBN978-84-453-5104-8.OCLC867868161.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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