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Gaelic warfare was the type ofwarfare practiced by theGaelic peoples (theIrish,Scottish, andManx) in the pre-modern period.
Irish warfare was for centuries centered on theCeithearn, orKern in English (and so pronounced in Gaelic), lightskirmishing infantry who harried the enemy with missiles before charging. John Dymmok, serving underElizabeth I'slord-lieutenant of Ireland, described the kerns as:
"... A kind of footman, slightly armed with a sword, atarget (round shield) of wood, or a bow and sheaf of arrows with barbed heads, or else three darts, which they cast with a wonderful facility and nearness..."[1]
For centuries, the backbone of any Gaelic Irish army was these lightly armedfoot soldiers.Ceithearn were usually armed with aspear (gae) orsword (claideamh),long dagger (scian),[2]bow (bogha) and a set ofjavelins, ordarts (gá-ín).[3]
The use ofarmoured infantry inGaelic Ireland from the 9th century on came as a counter to the mail-cladVikings. The arrival of the heavily armouredNorse-Gaelic mercenaryGallowglasses in the early 13th century, was in response to theNorman invasion of Ireland and theAnglo-Normans use of heavily armouredMen-at-arms andKnights.
These adaptations and developments brought regular use of other weapons such aslances,poleaxes like thedane axe,lochaber axe,sparth axe and swords like thearming sword andtwo-handed swords similar to the ScottishClaymore. Many of the medieval swords found in Ireland today are unlikely to be of native manufacture given many of the pommels and cross-guard decoration is not of Gaelic origin.[4]
By the time ofBrian Bóruma and Máel Sechnaill,Irish kings were taking large armies oncampaign over long distances and usingnaval forces in tandem withland forces. From the 11th century on, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known aslucht tighe "troops of the household", who were often given houses and land on theking's mensal land. These were well-trained and equipped professional soldiers made up ofinfantry andcavalry.[5]
Aside fromHobelars, who were highly mobile, lightly armoured, cavalryskirmishers andarchers, used primarily forscouting andambushes, the main Gaeliccavalry was usually made up of aking orchieftain andhis clan. They usuallyrode without saddles but worearmour andiron helmets and wieldedswords,skenes and longspears orlances.[6] A fully outfitted medieval Irish army would have includedlight infantry,heavy infantry and mixedcavalry.[7]
Gaelic Warfare was anything but stagnant and was adaptive and ever-changing. By the time of theTudor reconquest of Ireland and the beginning of the end of the Gaelic era, the Irish had adopted continental "pike and shot" formations like those used by the continental armies of theSpanish,Swiss andGermans. With formations consisting ofpikemen mixed withmusketeers andswordsmen. Indeed, from 1593 to 1601, theGaelic Irish fought with the most up-to-date methods ofwarfare, including full reliance onfirearms and modern military tactics.[8]
TheGaelic Irish preferredhit-and-run tactics andshock tactics likeambushes andraids (the crech), which involved catching the enemy unaware. One of the most common causes of conflict in Gaelic Ireland was cattle raiding.Cattle were the main form of wealth in Gaelic Ireland, as it was in many parts of Europe, as currency had not yet been introduced, and the aim of most wars was the capture of the enemy's cattle. If this worked, the raiders would then seize any valuables (mainlylivestock) and potentially valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape.[10]
Indeed,cattle raiding was asocial institution within Gaelic culture and newly crownedkings would carry out raids on traditional rivals upon coronation. TheGaelic termcreach rígh, or "king's raid", was used to describe the event, implying it was a customary tradition.[11]
The cattle raid was often called aTáin Bó and was an important aspect ofGaelic literature andculture, with theTáin Bó Cúailnge andTáin Bó Flidhais as important examples. Gaelic warfare wasanything but static, asGaelic soldiers frequentlylooted or bought the newest and most effective weaponry. Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred Gaelic tactic in theMiddle Ages, there were alsopitched battles to settle larger disputes.
Particularly followingthe arrival of theVikings fromLochlann, who brought their own style of raiding,warfare andsettlements. Over time, these foreignnewcomers established themselves, founding their own kingdom inDublin, establishing adynastic line and developing a distinctNorse-Gaelic culture of their own.
It's often stated that for the most part, the Gaelic Irish fought without armour, instead wearing saffron coloured beltedtunics calledléine (pronounced 'laynuh'), the plural beingléinte (pronounced 'layntuh/laynchuh'). According toGerald of Wales, who wrote propaganda (in the early 12th century), the Gaels preferred not to wear armour, as they deemed it burdensome to wear and one to be "brave and honourable" to fight without it.[12]Armour was usually a simple affair: the poorest might have wornpadded coats, the wealthier might have worn boiled leather armour calledcuir bouilli, and the wealthiest might have had access tobronze chest plates,padded textile armour or maybe perhapsmail orscale armours (though they did exist in Ireland, they were quite rare). However, this appears to be all incorrect as the Irish did have heavily armoured knights, as mentioned in theVisio Tnugdali long before the gallowglass came to Ireland.Gallowglass mercenaries of the early 13th century have been depicted as having wornmail tunics and steelburgonet helmets but the overall majority ofGaelic warriors would have been protected only by asmall shield. Gaelicshields were usually round, with a spindle-shapedboss, though later the regular iron boss models were introduced by theAnglo-Saxons,Vikings andNormans. A few shields were also oval in shape or square, but most of the native shields were small and round, likebucklers, to better enable agility and a quick escape.
Clan warfare was an important aspect of life inGaelic Ireland, especially before theViking Age, whenVikings broughtnew forms of technology,culture,warfare andsettlements to Ireland.
Before theViking Age, there was a heavy importance placed onGaelic clan wars andritual combat. Another very important aspect of Gaelic ritual warfare at this time wassingle combat. In order to settle a dispute or merely to measure one's prowess, it was customary to challenge another individual warrior from the other army to ritual single combat to the death, while being cheered on by the opposing hosts.
Champion warfare was an important aspect ofIrish mythology,literature, andculture, particularly in theUlster cycle withCú Chulainn andtheTáin Bó Cúailnge, where the hero fromUlster defeats an entire army fromConnacht one by one. Such single combats were common before apitched battle, and for ritual purposes they tended to occur atriver fords.
The spirit and traditions ofsingle combat would live on and manifest themselves in other ways in Modern Gaelic cultures. InScotland with events likeScottish Wrestling, theHighland Games andScottish Martial Arts like thedueling of the 18th century, where the victor was determined by who made the first cut. However, this was not always observed, and at times the duel would continue to the death. InIreland, the spirit of ritual combat has also manifested itself as single combat stylesporting events andIrish martial arts such asIrish boxing (Dornálaíocht),Irish wrestling (Barróg),stick fighting (Bataireacht) andscuffling (Coiléar agus Uille).
Many of the towns in Gaelic Ireland had some type of defense in the form of walls or ditches. For most of the Gaelic period, dwellings and buildings werecircular with conical thatched roofs.[13] Many towns and dwellings in Gaelic Ireland were often surrounded by acircular rampart called a "ringfort".[14] There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century, somemonasteries became the heart of small "monastic towns",[15][16] many of theIrish round towers were built after this period.
Following theNorman invasion of Ireland, theNormans builtmotte-and-bailey castles in the areas they occupied,[17] some of which were converted fromringforts.[18] Within Gaelic Ireland, many of the areas conquered byAnglo-Normans often had defense walls due to the frontier type of lifestyle. Some had these walls built, assuming that the town had no adequate defense, using only a ditch. The masonry walls in some towns had not been completed due to the economics of the time. While many of the towns often constructed what look to be defensive walls, this can sometimes not be the case. Towns constructed walls and town gates at times as merely a symbol of lordly wealth, or as a physical expression of power; the defensive aspects of some of these walls and gates would become a secondary role.[19]
By the 12th century, "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by the Gaelic Irish in imitation" of the Normans.[20]TheHiberno-Normans gradually replaced these wooden motte-and-baileys withstone castles andtower houses.[21] Square and rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and by the 14th or 15th century, they had replaced round buildings completely.[22]
Starting in the late 16th century, an era ofSiege warfare began in Ireland. During this period, urban defense came to the forefront of Gaelic warfare and became increasingly important. Following shocking atrocities at theSack of Cashel andOliver Cromwell’ssiege and massacre at Drogheda. Gaelic Irish rebels, realizing that they could not expect or trust any quarter to be given upon surrender, began to improvise and set traps for armies besieging their towns.
At both thesiege of Clonmel andsiege of Charlemont,Irish rebel defenders were able to exact a heavy toll onEnglish forces. During Clonmel, Cromwell'sNew Model Army and 8,000 men eventually took the town from its 2,000 Irish defenders, but not before suffering heavy losses of around 2,000 soldiers or a quarter of their total force, their largest ever loss in a single action.[23] At Charlemont, a small force of less than 200 defenders and townsfolk was able to hold off the New Model Army for two months through heavy fighting after arming the entire town's populace, including women.[24] In both engagements, the English, with overwhelming forces, surrounded the fortifications and created a breach in the defenses using cannon fire and then assaulted the breach. Both times, the town’s people and defenders set a trap within. At Clonmel, they built acoupure within the breach and lined it with artillery, muskets, and pikemen, thus creating akilling field just inside the walls. In both instances, Irish defenders were able to compel the superior English forces into granting surrender agreements with generous terms through heavy fighting and attrition to the besieging armies.[25][26]
InitiallyKern orceithern were members of individual tribes, but later, when theVikings andEnglish came to Ireland, they introduced new systems ofbilleting soldiers, the kern became billetedsoldiers andmercenaries who served the highest bidder. Because kern were equipped and trained as lightskirmishers, they faced a severe disadvantage inpitched battle. In battle, the kern and lightly armedhorsemen would charge the enemy line after intimidating them withshock tactics,war cries,horns andpipes.[27]
If the kern failed to break an enemy line after the charge, they were liable to flee. If the enemy formation did not break under the kern's charge, then heavily armed and armoured Irish soldiers were moved forward and would advance from the rear lines and attack, these units were replaced in the late 13th century by theGallowglass orGallóglaigh, who at first wereNorse-Gaelicmercenaries but by the 15th century most largetúatha inIreland had fostered and developed their own hereditary forces of Gallowglass. The primary function of GaelicHeavy infantry was so lighter combatants such as Kern and Hobelars caught in thick fighting could strike, break free, re-group and tactically retreat behind the newly formedbattle line if they needed to.
By the time ofthe Tudor reconquest of Ireland, the forces underHugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone had adoptedContinentalpike-and-shot tactics. Indeed, from the 16th century on, the Gaelic Irish fought with the most up-to-date methods of warfare, including full reliance on firearms and modern tactics. Their formations consisted of a mix ofPikemen,musketeers andGaelic swordsmen who beganto be equipped and fight more like the continental units like theGermanLandsknecht or theSpanishRodelero. They used these tactics to fight theinvading English forces, however, these formations proved vulnerable without adequatecavalry support.Muskets and otherFirearms were widely used in combination with traditional Gaelicshock andhit and run tactics, often inambushes against enemycolumns on the march.[28]
As time went on, the Gaelsbegan intensifyingtheir raids and colonies inRoman Britain (c. 200–500 AD). Naval forces were necessary for this, and, as a result, large numbers of small boats, calledcurrachs, were employed. Gaelic forces were so frequently at sea (especially theDál Riata Gaels), weaponry had to change.Javelins andslings became more uncommon, as they required too much space to launch, which the small currachs did not allow. Instead, more and more Gaels were armed withbows and arrows.
TheDál Riata, for example, after colonizingthe west of Scotland and becoming amaritime power, became an army composed completely ofarchers. Slings also went out of use, replaced by both bows and a very effective naval weapon called thecrann tabhaill, a kind ofcatapult.
Later, when theGaels came into contact with theVikings, they realized the need for heavier weaponry, so as to make hacking through the much largerNorse shields and heavy mail-coats possible.
Heavier hacking-swords andpolearm weapons became more frequent, as did Ironhelmets andmail-coats. Gaels began to regularly use the double-handed "Dane Axe", wielded by theVikings. Irish andScottish infantry troops fighting with theClaymore,axes andheavier armour, in addition to their ownnative darts andbows. These heavy troops became known as theGallòglaigh (Gallowglass), or "foreign soldiers", and formed an important part of Gaelic armies in the future.
Thecoming of the Normans into Irelandand Britain several hundred years later also forced theIrish andScots to use an increasingly large number of more heavily armouredwarriors combined quickskirmishercavalry in order to effectively deal with the mail-cladNormans.
During theScottish Wars of Independence, theScots had to develop a means to counter theAnglo-NormanEnglish and their devastating combined use ofheavy cavalry and theLongbow. Which had dominated almost every battlefield inGreat Britain sinceHastings.
The Scottish rebelsAndrew de Moray,William Wallace and Scottish KingRobert the Bruce can all be credited with the development of theSchiltron as a counter to theNormans and their early use ofcombined arms warfare. English Chroniclers of the era said of the warriors in the Schiltrons:
Andrew de Moray is credited with using the Schiltron early on inthe campaign, but he died shortly after sustaining a mortal injury at theBattle of Stirling Bridge.[31][32]
In early engagements, like when Schiltrons were used byWilliam Wallace at theBattle of Falkirk, the immobilePhalanx-like formations proved vulnerable to the EnglishLongbowmen without adequatecavalry support. But the Scots learned from this and by the timeEdward II met the Scots at Bannockburn,Robert the Bruce had adapted theSchiltron and turned it into a more mobile offensive formation (much like the laterPike Square ofcontinental fame). With these tight mobile formations and adequatecavalry support. The Scots were able to use this innovative adaptation to pin theEnglish heavy horse against theBannockburn on the second day of theBattle of Bannockburn and routed the army ofEdward II of England paving the way for eventualScottish Independence.
Many Gaelic clans each had their own distinctcultures,symbols,heraldry,flags andbattle standards. Wind instruments such as hollowed-out bull horns were often carried into battle byChieftains or War leaders and used as a means to rally men into combat.Bagpipes would eventually gain popularity among Gaelic clans and replace other rallying instruments such as theblowing horn orcarnyx, and it can be attributed to being used from as early as the 14th century. Most notably, theGreat Irish Warpipes, which would go on to be used byGaelic mercenaries in European conflicts and would eventually develop into ceremonial instruments. Bagpipes have since become an important symbol ofGaelic culture as a whole. With both theUilleann pipes and theGreat Highland Bagpipe playing important roles in the culture of their respective nations.
The most prolificNorse legacy in Gaelic warfare was the introduction of theGallowglass,gallóglaigh (Irish) orgallòglaich (Scottish Gaelic), a kind ofheavy infantry,shock troop andelite bodyguard for theGaelic Nobility. Similar in function to theHousecarls of theEnglish nobility or theVarangian Guard ofConstantinople. The original Gallowglass wereNorse–Gaelicmercenaries who came from theHebrides andthe Isles. They appeared in Ireland in the 13th century, following theWars of Scottish Independence andthe Bruce campaign but by the 15th century most largetúatha had their own hereditary force of Gallowglass.[35] They fought and trained in a combination ofGaelic andNorse techniques, and were highly valued; they were hired throughout theBritish Isles at different times, though most famously inIreland.
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One of the first battles believed to have to included Gallowglass was theBattle of Connacht. AsÁed na nGall Ó Conchobair, theKing of Connacht who defeated theAnglo-Normans, was known to travel with a retinue of 160 Gallowglass that he received as a dowry.[36] Gallowglass usually woremail andiron helmets and wielded heavy weaponry such as theDane axe,Sparth axes,Lochaber axes,Longswords,Claymores and sometimesspears orlances. TheseGallóglaigh furnished the retreating Gaels with a "movingline of defense from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind which they could retreat when pursued". Their heavy armour made them less nimble thankern, so they were sometimes placed at strategic spots along theline of retreat.[37]
Gallowglasses were frequently hired and served asmercenaries incontinental armies and units, such as theDutch Blue Guards,Swiss Guard, theFrenchScottish Guard, and the forces of KingGustavus Adolphus of Sweden in his invasion ofLivonia during theThirty Years' War. Gallowglass later became a caste of warrior rather than an indicator of a Norse Gaelic origin, with Irish Gallowglass clans producing their own.
Despite the increased usage offirearms in Irish warfare following the 16th century, Gallowglass remained an integral part ofHugh Ó Neill's forces during theNine Years' War. Following the combined Irish defeat at theBattle of Kinsale in 1601, the recruitment of the heavily armoured warriors finally waned.
Hobelars were a mounted, highly mobileskirmisher unit. Some weremounted archers, some were merelylight cavalry. These Gaelic horsemen were utilitarian and could fill multiple roles on the battlefield, including as mobile skirmishinginfantry used tooutmaneuver enemy units or as skirmishingcavalry, used forquick and abrupt attacks.
Early Hobelars wore little armour, they typically rode on smaller, quicker, unarmouredhobby horses andponies rather than the full-sized horses thatMen-at-arms rode. Hobelars would typically dismount to fight, harry their opponents and then utilize their mounts as a quick getaway. As time went on, Hobelars began to be utilized for more and more cavalry tasks and functions.[38]
During hisconflicts with the English crown,Robert the Bruce deployed thehobby for his campaign ofguerilla warfare and mountedraids to great success, covering 60 to 70 miles (100 to 110 km) a day. They were so successful thatEdward I of England prevented Irish exports ofhobbies toScotland in order to gain an advantage in the conflict.[39] Hobelars were highly proficient atscouting,patrolling andambushing in areas typically unreachable by cavalry units such a mountainous areas, thick forests and boggy swamps.[40] WithinIreland andGreat Britainand beyond, the skirmisher cavalry were a well-known and highly valued as a light and mobile unit.
After the successful and effective deployment of these horsemen by both the English and Scottish during theScottish Wars of Independence.[41] Belligerents incontinental conflicts also began to hireIrish andScottish Gaels asmercenary troops for their armies. Both theEnglish andFrench hired these Gaelic horsemen and both eventually duplicated the concept themselves.[42] Hobelars were principally utilized in engagements during theScottish Wars of Independence andHundred Years' War. After time, the Hobelars slowly adapted from mountedskirmishers much likekern, into a more basic form oflight cavalry. Onthe continent, from 1311 on, continental Hobelars became more and morearmoured and less distinguishable from othercavalry units.[43]
InScotland, Hobelars served as the offensive arm of castlegarrisons. Hobelars were utilized as raiders across the border by both theEnglish andScots, they can be viewed as early predecessors tothe reivers andmoss-troopers of theScottish borderlands.[44]
During theLate Middle Ages andRenaissance period, weapon imports fromEurope influenced Gaelic weapon design. Take, for example, the GermanZweihänder sword, a longdouble-handed weapon used for quick, powerful cuts and thrusts. Irish swords were copied from these models, which had unique furnishings. Many, for example, often featuredopen rings on thepommel. On any locally designed Irish sword in the Middle Ages, this meant you could see the end of thetang go through the pommel and cap the end. These swords were often of very fine construction and quality.Scottish swords continued to use the more traditional "V" cross-guards that had been on pre-Norse Gaelic swords, culminating in such pieces as the now famous "claymore" design. This was an outgrowth of numerous earlier designs and has become a symbol of Scotland. The claymore was used together with the typicalaxes of theGallowglass until the 18th century, but began to be replaced bypistols,muskets andbasket-hilted swords, which were shorter versions of the claymore which were used with one hand in conjunction with a shield. Thesebasket-hilted broadswords are still a symbol ofScotland to this day, as is the typical small round shield known as a "targe."
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Redshank was a nickname for Scottish or Ulstermercenaries from theHighlands andWestern Isles contracted to fight inIreland; they were a prominent feature of Irish armies throughout the 16th century. They were called redshanks because, similarly to the Irish, they went dressed inplaids and waded bare-legged through rivers in the coldest weather. The term was not derogatory, however, as theEnglish were in general impressed with the redshanks' qualities as soldiers.[45]
The redshanks were usually armed alike, principally withbows (theshort bow of Scotland and Ireland, rather than thelongbow of Wales and England) and, initially, two-handed weapons likeclaymores,battle axes orLochaber axes.English observers reported that someHighlanders fighting inIreland worechain mail, long obsolete elsewhere.[46]
Later in the period, they may have adopted thetarge andsingle-handed broadsword, a style of weaponry originally fashionable in early16th-century Spain from where its use could have spread toIreland.[47] Combined with the use ofmuskets, this could have influenced the development of what was later referred to as the "highland charge", a tactic of firing a single coordinated musket volley before closing at a run withsword andtarge.[48] ManyGaelic clan levies, calledCaterans, would have remained relatively poorly armed.
By the mid-17th century, a large number ofScottish Highlanders, also often called "redshanks", fought in theIrish Confederate Wars, notably the clansmen serving underAlasdair Mac Colla, himself a member of a minor Hebridean branch ofClan Donald (a cadet family ofClan MacDonald of Dunnyveg).[49] However, the Highlanders who fought at theBattle of Dungan's Hill andBattle of Knocknanuss were to be the last of the redshanks.[50]
The subsequentCromwellian conquest andWilliamite War brought an end to Irish employment of Scottish Highlandmercenaries through the destruction of their employers, theGaelic nobility and by the pacification of theScottish Gaels with theStatutes of Iona and theHighland clearances.
This is a list of battles or conflicts in which theGaels had a leading or crucial role.
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