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Gaelic Ireland (Irish:Éire Ghaelach) was theGaelic political and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland from the lateprehistoric era until the 17th century. It comprised the whole island beforeAnglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland in the 1170s. Thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not under foreign dominion at a given time (i.e. the part beyondThe Pale). For most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a "patchwork"[1] hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs, who were chosen or elected throughtanistry.Warfare betweenthese territories was common. Traditionally, a powerful ruler was acknowledged asHigh King of Ireland.[a] Society was made up ofclans and, like the rest ofEurope, was structured hierarchically according toclass. Throughout this period, the economy was mainlypastoral andmoney was generally not used.[2] A Gaelic Irish style ofdress,music,dance,sport andart can be identified, with Irish art later merging withAnglo-Saxon styles to createInsular art.
Gaelic Ireland was initiallypagan and had anoral culture maintained by traditional Gaelic storytellers/historians, theseanchaidhthe. Writing, in the form ofinscription in theoghamalphabet, began in theprotohistoric period, perhaps as early as the 1st century. Theconversion to Christianity, beginning in the 5th century, accompanied the introduction ofliterature. In the Middle Ages,Irish mythology andBrehon law were recorded by Irish monks, albeit partlyChristianized. Gaelic Irish monasteries were important centres of learning. Irish missionaries and scholars wereinfluential in western Europe and helped tospread Christianity to much of Britain and parts of mainland Europe.
In the 9th century,Vikings beganraiding andfounding settlements along Ireland's coasts and waterways, which became its first large towns. Over time, these settlerswere assimilated and became theNorse-Gaels. After theAnglo-Norman invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the control ofNorman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with the native Irish. TheKing of England claimed sovereignty over this territory – theLordship of Ireland – and the island as a whole. However, the Gaelic system continued in areas outsideAnglo-Norman control. The territory under English control gradually shrank to an area known asthe Pale and, outside this, manyHiberno-Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture.
In 1542, theLordship of Ireland became theKingdom of Ireland whenHenry VIII of Englandwas given the title ofKing of Ireland by theParliament of Ireland. TheEnglish then began toextend their control over the island. By 1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the old Gaelic political and social order to an end.
Gaelic culture and society were centred around thefine (explained below). Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits.Filí anddraoithe (druids) were held in high regard during Pagan times and orally passed down the history and traditions of their people. Later, many of their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the 5th century onwards. However, thefilí continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling, literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland. Hospitality, bonds of kinship and the fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important.[citation needed]
LikeBritain, Gaelic Ireland consisted not of one single unified kingdom, but several. The main kingdoms wereUlaid (Ulster),Mide (Meath),Laigin (Leinster),Muma (Munster, consisting ofIarmuman,Tuadmumain andDesmumain),Connacht,Bréifne (Breffny),In Tuaiscert (The North), andAirgíalla (Oriel). Each of these overkingdoms were built upon lordships known astúatha (singular:túath). Law tracts from the early 700s describe a hierarchy of kings: kings oftúath subject to kings of severaltúatha who again were subject to the regional overkings.[3] Already before the 8th century these overkingdoms had begun to replace the túatha as the basic sociopolitical unit.[3]
BeforeChristianization, the Gaelic Irish werepolytheistic orpagan. They hadmany gods and goddesses, which generally have parallels in thepantheons of other European nations. Two groups of supernatural beings who appear throughout Irish mythology—theTuatha Dé Danann andFomorians—are believed to represent the Gaelic pantheon. They were alsoanimists, believing that all aspects of the natural world contained spirits, and that these spirits could be communicated with.[4] Burial practices—which included burying food, weapons, and ornaments with the dead—suggest a belief inlife after death.[5] Some have equated this afterlife with theOtherworld realms known asMagh Meall andTír na nÓg in Irish mythology.[6] There were four main religious festivals each year, marking the traditional four divisions of the year –Samhain,Imbolc,Bealtaine andLughnasadh.[7]
Themythology of Ireland was originallypassed downorally, but much of it was eventuallywritten down byIrish monks, who Christianized and modified it to an extent. This large body of work is often split into three overlapping cycles: theMythological Cycle, theUlster Cycle, and theFenian Cycle. The first cycle is a pseudo-history that describes how Ireland, its people and its society came to be. The second cycle tells of the lives and deaths ofUlaidh heroes and villains such asCúchulainn,Queen Medb andConall Cernach. The third cycle tells of the exploits ofFionn mac Cumhaill and theFianna. There are also a number of tales that do not fit into these cycles – this includes theimmrama andechtrai, which are tales of voyages to the 'Otherworld'.
The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, withPalladius (later bishop of Ireland) sent byPope Celestine I in the mid-5th century to preach "ad Scotti in Christum"[8] or in other words to minister to theScoti orIrish "believing in Christ".[9] Early medieval traditions creditSaint Patrick as being the firstPrimate of Ireland.[10]Christianity would eventually supplant the existingpagan traditions, with the prologue of the 9th centuryMartyrology of Tallaght (attributed to authorÓengus of Tallaght) speaking of the last vestiges of paganism in Ireland.[11]
In Gaelic Ireland each person belonged to anagnatic kin-group known as afine (plural:finte). This was a large group of related people supposedly descended from one progenitor through male forebears. It was headed by a man whose office was known in Old Irish as acenn fine ortoísech (plural:toísig). Nicholls suggests that they would be better thought of as akin to the modern-day corporation.[12] Within eachfine, the family descended from a common great-grandparent was called aderbfine (modern formdearbhfhine), lit. "close clan". Thecland (modern formclann) referred to the children of the nuclear family.
Succession to the kingship was throughtanistry. When a man became king, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist' (Irish:tánaiste, pluraltanaistí).[13] When the king died, his tanist would automatically succeed him.[13][14] The tanist had to share the samederbfine and he was elected by other members of thederbfine. Tanistry meant that the kingship usually went to whichever relative was deemed to be the most fitting.[13] Sometimes there would be more than one tanist at a time and they would succeed each other in order of seniority.[13] Some Anglo-Norman lordships later adopted tanistry from the Irish.[13]
Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings and chiefs. The smallest territory was thetúath (plural:túatha), which was typically the territory of a single kin-group. It was ruled by arí túaithe (king of atúath) ortoísech túaithe (leader of atúath). Severaltúatha formed amór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by arí mór túath orruirí (overking). Severalmór túatha formed acóiced (province), which was ruled by arí cóicid orrí ruirech (provincial king). In the early Middle Ages thetúatha was the main political unit, but over time they were subsumed into bigger conglomerate territories and became much less important politically.[3][15]
Gaelic society was structured hierarchically, with those further up the hierarchy generally having more privileges, wealth and power than those further down.
Although distinct, these ranks were not utterly exclusivecastes like those of India.[22] It was possible to rise or sink from one rank to another. Rising upward could be achieved a number of ways, such as by gaining wealth, by gaining skill in some department, by qualifying for a learned profession, by showing conspicuous valour, or by performing some service to the community.[22] An example of the latter is a person choosing to become abriugu (hospitaller). Abriugu had to have his house open to any guests, which included feeding no matter how big the group. For thebriugu to fulfill these duties, he was allowed more land and privileges,[14] but this could be lost if he ever refused guests.[23]
A freeman could further himself by becoming the client of one or more lords. The lord made his client a grant of property (i.e. livestock or land) and, in return, the client owed his lord yearly payments of food and fixed amounts of work. The clientship agreement could last until the lord's death. If the client died, his heirs would carry on the agreement. This system of clientship enabled social mobility as a client could increase his wealth until he could afford clients of his own, thus becoming a lord. Clientship was also practised between nobles, which established hierarchies of homage and political support.[24]
Gaelic law was originally passed down orally, but was written down inOld Irish during the period 600–900 AD. This collection of oral and written laws is known as theFénechas[25] or, in English, as the Brehon Law(s). Thebrehons (Old Irish:brithem, pluralbrithemain) were thejurists in Gaelic Ireland. Becoming a brehon took many years of training and the office was, or became, largely hereditary. Mostlegal cases were contested privately between opposing parties, with the brehons acting as arbitrators.[15]
Offences against people and property were primarily settled by the offender paying compensation to the victims. Although any such offence required compensation, the law made a distinction between intentional and unintentional harm, and between murder andmanslaughter.[26] If an offender did not pay outright, hisproperty was seized until he did so. Should the offender be unable to pay, his family would be responsible for doing so. Should the family be unable or unwilling to pay, responsibility would broaden to the wider kin-group. Hence, it has been argued that "the people were their own police".[26] Acts of violence were generally settled by payment of compensation known as anéraic fine;[24] the Gaelic equivalent of the Welshgalanas and the Germanicweregild. If a free person was murdered, theéraic was equal to 21 cows, regardless of the victim's rank in society.[24] Each member of the murder victim's agnatic kin-group received a payment based on their closeness to the victim, their status, and so forth. There were separate payments for the kin-group of the victim's mother, and for the victim's foster-kin.[24]
Execution seems to have been rare and carried out only as a last resort. If a murderer was unable or unwilling to payéraic and was handed to his victim's family, they might kill him if they wished should nobody intervene by paying theéraic. Habitual or particularly serious offenders might be expelled from the kin-group and its territory. Such people became outlaws (with no protection from the law) and anyone who sheltered him became liable for his crimes. If he still haunted the territory and continued his crimes there, he was proclaimed in a public assembly and after this anyone might lawfully kill him.[26]
Each person had an honour-price, which varied depending on their rank in society. This honour-price was to be paid to them if their honour was violated by certain offences.[24] Those of higher rank had a higher honour-price. However, an offence against the property of a poor man (who could ill afford it), was punished more harshly than a similar offence upon a wealthy man. The clergy were more harshly punished than thelaity. When a layman had paid his fine he would go through a probationary period and then regain his standing, but a clergyman could never regain his standing.[26]
Some laws were pre-Christian in origin. These secular laws existed in parallel, and sometimes in conflict, withChurch law. Although brehons usually dealt with legal cases, kings would have been able to deliver judgments also, but it is unclear how much they would have had to rely on brehons.[27] Kings had their own brehons to deal with cases involving the king's own rights and to give him legal advice.[15] Unlike other kingdoms in Europe, Gaelic kings—by their own authority—could not enact new laws as they wished and could not be "above the law".[28] They could, however, enact temporary emergency laws. It was mainly through these emergency powers that the Church attempted to change Gaelic law.[24]
The law texts take great care to define social status, the rights and duties that went with that status, and the relationships between people. For example,ceann finte had to take responsibility for members of theirfine, acting as asurety for some of their deeds and making sure debts were paid. He would also be responsible for unmarried women after the death of their fathers.[29]
Ancient Irish culture waspatriarchal. TheBrehon law excepted women from the ordinary course of the law so that, in general, every woman had to have a male guardian.[30] However, women had some legal capacity. By the 8th century, the preferred form of marriage was one between social equals, under which a woman was technically legally dependent on her husband and had half his honor price, but could exercise considerable authority in regard to the transfer of property. Such women were called "women of joint dominion".[31] Thus historianPatrick Weston Joyce could write that, relative to other European countries of the time, free women in Gaelic Ireland "held a good position" and their social and property rights were "in most respects, quite on a level with men".[32]
Gaelic Irish society was alsopatrilineal, with land being primarily owned by men and inherited by the sons. Only when a man had no sons would his land pass to his daughters, and then only for their lifetimes.[24] Upon their deaths, the land was redistributed among their father's male relations.[24] Under Brehon law, rather than inheriting land, daughters had assigned to them a certain number of their father's cattle as their marriage-portion.[30][31] It seems that, throughout the Middle Ages, the Gaelic Irish kept many of their marriage laws and traditions separate from those of the Church.[33] Under Gaelic law, married women could hold property independent of their husbands,[33][34] a link was maintained between married women and their own families,[33][35] couples could easily divorce or separate,[33][34] and men could haveconcubines (which could be lawfully bought).[33][35] These laws differed from most of contemporary Europe and from Church law.
The lawfulage of marriage was fifteen for girls and eighteen for boys, the respective ages at whichfosterage ended.[35] Upon marriage, the families of the bride and bridegroom were expected to contribute to the match. It was custom for the bridegroom and his family to pay acoibche (modern spelling:coibhche) and the bride was allowed a share of it. If the marriage ended owing to a fault of the husband then thecoibche was kept by the wife and her family, but if the fault lay with the wife then thecoibche was to be returned.[33] It was custom for the bride to receive aspréid (modern spelling:spréidh) from her family (or foster family) upon marriage. This was to be returned if the marriage ended through divorce or the death of the husband. Later, thespréid seems to have been converted into adowry.[33] Women could seek divorce/separation as easily as men could and, when obtained on her behalf, she kept all the property she had brought her husband during their marriage.[35]Trial marriages seem to have been popular among the rich and powerful, and thus it has been argued thatcohabitation before marriage must have been acceptable.[33] It also seems that the wife of a chieftain was entitled to some share of the chief's authority over his territory. This led to some Gaelic Irish wives wielding a great deal of political power.[33]
Before the Norman invasion, it was common for priests and monks to have wives. This remained mostly unchanged after the Norman invasion, despite protests from bishops and archbishops. The authorities classed such women as priests' concubines and there is evidence that a formal contract of concubinage existed between priests and their women. However, unlike other concubines, they seem to have been treated just as wives were.[33]
In Gaelic Ireland a kind offosterage was common, whereby (for a certain length of time) children would be left in the care of others[35] to strengthen family ties or political bonds.[34] Foster parents were beholden to teach their foster children or to have them taught. Foster parents who had properly done their duties were entitled to be supported by their foster children in old age (if they were in need and had no children of their own).[35] As with divorce, Gaelic law again differed from most of Europe and from Church law in giving legal standing to both"legitimate" and "illegitimate" children.[35]
For most of the Gaelic period, dwellings and farm buildings were circular with conical thatched roofs (seeroundhouse). Square and rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and by the 14th or 15th century they had replaced round buildings completely.[36] In some areas, buildings were made mostly of stone. In others, they were built of timber,wattle and daub, or a mix of materials. Most ancient and early medieval stone buildings were ofdry stone construction. Some buildings would have had glass windows.[37] Among the wealthy, it was common for women to have their own 'apartment' called agrianan (anglicized "greenan") in the sunniest part of the homestead.[37]
The dwellings of freemen and their families were often surrounded by acircular rampart called a "ringfort".[34] There are two main kinds of ringfort. Theráth is an earthen ringfort, averaging 30m diameter, with a dry outside ditch.[38] Thecathair orcaiseal is a stone ringfort. The ringfort would typically have enclosed the family home, small farm buildings or workshops, and animal pens.[39] Most date to the period 500–1000 CE[38] and there is evidence of large-scale ringfort desertion at the end of the first millennium.[39] The remains of between 30,000 and 40,000 lasted into the 19th century to be mapped byOrdnance Survey Ireland.[38] Another kind of native dwelling was thecrannóg, which were roundhouses built on artificial islands in lakes.
There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century somemonasteries became the heart of small "monastic towns".[34][39] By the 10th century theNorse-Gaelic ports ofDublin,Wexford,Cork andLimerick had grown into substantial settlements,[38] all ruled byGaelic kings by 1052. In this era many of theIrish round towers were built.
In the fifty years before theNorman invasion, the term "castle" (Old Irish:caistél/caislén) appears in Gaelic writings, although there are few intact surviving examples of pre-Norman castles.[39] After the invasion, the Normans builtmotte-and-bailey castles in the areas they occupied,[40] some of which were converted from ringforts.[39] By 1300 "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by the Gaelic Irish in imitation".[40] The Normans gradually replaced wooden motte-and-baileys with stone castles andtower houses.[40] Tower houses are free-standing multi-storey stone towers usually surrounded by a wall (seebawn) and ancillary buildings.[38] Gaelic families had begun to build their own tower houses by the 15th century.[39] As many as 7000 may have been built, but they were rare in areas with little Norman settlement or contact.[39] They are concentrated in counties Limerick and Clare but are lacking in Ulster, except the area aroundStrangford Lough.[38]
In Gaelic law, a 'sanctuary' called amaighin digona surrounded each person's dwelling. Themaighin digona's size varied according to the owner's rank. In the case of abóaire it stretched as far as he, while sitting at his house, could cast acnairsech (variously described as a spear or sledgehammer). The owner of amaighin digona could offer its protection to someone fleeing from pursuers, who would then have to bring that person to justice by lawful means.[26]
Gaelic Ireland was involved intrade with Britain and mainland Europe fromancient times, and this trade increased over the centuries.Tacitus, for example, wrote in the 1st century that most of Ireland's harbours were known to theRomans through commerce.[41] There are many passages in early Irish literature that mentionluxury goods imported from foreign lands, and thefair of Carman inLeinster included a market of foreign traders.[42] In the Middle Ages the main exports weretextiles such aswool andlinen while the main imports were luxury items.[34]
Money was seldom used in Gaelic society; instead, goods and services were usually exchanged for other goods and services (barter). The economy was mainly apastoral one, based on livestock (cows,sheep,pigs,goats, etc.) andtheir products.[13]Cattle was "the main element in the Irish pastoral economy" and the main form ofwealth, providingmilk,butter,cheese,meat,fat,hides, and so forth.[13] They were a "highly mobile form of wealth and economic resource which could be quickly and easily moved to a safer locality in time of war or trouble".[13] The nobility owned great herds of cattle that had herdsmen and guards.[13] Sheep, goats and pigs were also a valuable resource but had a lesser role in Irish pastoralism.[13]
Horticulture was practised; the main crops beingoats,wheat andbarley, althoughflax was also grown for making linen.
Transhumance was also practised, whereby people moved with their livestock to higherpastures in summer and back to lower pastures in the cooler months.[34][43] The summer pasture was called thebuaile (anglicized asbooley) and it is noteworthy that the Irish word forboy (buachaill) originally meant a herdsman.[43] Manymoorland areas were "shared as acommon summer pasturage by the people of a whole parish or barony".[43]
Gaelic Ireland was well furnished with roads and bridges. Bridges were typically wooden and in some places the roads were laid with wood and stone. There were five main roads leading fromTara: Slíghe Asail,Slíghe Chualann, Slíghe Dála,Slíghe Mór andSlíghe Midluachra.[44]
Horses were one of the main means of long-distance transport. Althoughhorseshoes andreins were used, the Gaelic Irish did not usesaddles,stirrups orspurs. Every man was trained to spring from the ground on to the back of his horse (anech-léim or "steed-leap") and they urged-on and guided their horses with a rod having a hooked goad at the end.[45]
Two-wheeled and four-wheeledchariots (singularcarbad) were used in Ireland from ancient times, both in private life and in war. They were big enough for two people, made of wickerwork and wood, and often had decorated hoods. The wheels were spoked, shod all round with iron, and were from three to four and a half feet high. Chariots were generally drawn by horses or oxen, with horse-drawn chariots being more common among chiefs and military men.War chariots furnished withscythes and spikes, like those of the ancientGauls andBritons, are mentioned in literature.[46]
Boats used in Gaelic Ireland includecanoes,currachs,sailboats andIrish galleys. Ferryboats were used to cross wide rivers and are often mentioned in theBrehon Laws as subject to strict regulations. Sometimes they were owned by individuals and sometimes they were the common property of those living round the ferry. Large boats were used fortrade with mainland Europe.[47]
Throughout the Middle Ages, the common clothing amongst the Gaelic Irish consisted of abrat (a woollen semi circular cloak) worn over aléine (a loose-fitting, long-sleeved tunic made of linen). For men theléine reached to their ankles but was hitched up by means of a crios (pronounced 'kriss') which was a type of woven belt. The léine was hitched up to knee level.[48] Women wore the léine at full length. Men sometimes wore tight-fitting trews (Gaelic triúbhas) but otherwise went bare-legged.[49] Thebrat was simply thrown over both shoulders or sometimes over only one. Occasionally the brat was fastened with adealg (brooch), with men usually wearing thedealg at their shoulders and women at their chests.[50] Theionar (a short, tight-fitting jacket) became popular later on. InTopographia Hibernica, written during the 1180s,Gerald de Barri wrote that the Irish commonly wore hoods at that time[51] (perhaps forming part of thebrat), whileEdmund Spenser wrote in the 1580s that thebrat was (in general) their main item of clothing. Gaelic clothing does not appear to have been influenced by outside styles.
Women invariably grew their hair long and, as in other European cultures, this custom was also common among the men.[49][51][52] It is said that the Gaelic Irish took great pride in theirlong hair—for example, a person could be forced to pay the heavy fine of two cows for shaving a man's head against his will.[26] For women, very long hair was seen as a mark of beauty.[52] Sometimes, wealthy men and women would braid their hair and fasten hollow golden balls to the braids.[52] Another style that was popular among some medieval Gaelic men was theglib (short all over except for a long, thick lock of hair towards the front of the head). A band or ribbon around the forehead was the typical way of holding one's hair in place. For the wealthy, this band was often a thin and flexible band of burnished gold, silver or findruine.[52] When the Anglo-Normans and the English colonized Ireland, hair length came to signify one's allegiance. Irishmen who cut their hair short were deemed to be forsaking their Irish heritage. Likewise, English colonists who grew their hair long at the back were deemed to be giving in to the Irish life.[53]
Gaelic men typically wore abeard[49][51] andmustache,[52] and it was often seen as dishonourable for a Gaelic man to have no facial hair. Beard styles varied – the long forked beard and the rectangular Mesopotamian-style beard were fashionable at times.[52]
Warfare was common in Gaelic Ireland, asterritories,kingdoms andclans fought for supremacy against each other and later against theVikings andAnglo-Normans.[54]Champion warfare is a common theme in Early Irishmythology,literature and culture. In the Middle Ages all able-bodied men, apart from the learned and the clergy, were eligible for military service on behalf of theking orchief.[55] Throughout the Middle Ages and for some time after, outsiders often wrote that the Irish style of warfare differed greatly from what they deemed to be the norm in Western Europe.[54] The Gaelic Irish preferredhit-and-runraids (thecrech), which involved catching the enemy unaware. If this worked they would then seize any valuables (mainly livestock) and potentially valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape.[54] Thecattle raid was asocial institution and was called aTáin Bó in Gaelic literature. Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred tactic in medieval times, there were alsopitched battles. From at least the 11th century, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known aslucht tighe "troops of the household", who were often given houses and land on the king's mensal land. These were well-trained and equipped professional soldiers made up ofinfantry andcavalry.[55] By the reign ofBrian Boru, Irish kings were taking large armies oncampaign over long distances and usingnaval forces in tandem withland forces.[55][56]
A typical medieval Irish army includedlight infantry,heavy infantry andcavalry. The bulk of the army was made up of light infantry calledceithern (anglicized 'kern'). The ceithern wandered Ireland offering their services for hire and usually wielded swords, skenes (a kind of long knife), short spears, bows and shields.[54] The cavalry was usually made up of a king or chieftain and his close relatives. They usually rode without saddles but wore armour and iron helmets and wielded swords, skenes and long spears orlances.[54] One kind of Irish cavalry was thehobelar. After the Norman invasion there emerged a kind of heavy infantry calledgallóglaigh (anglicized 'gallo[w]glass'). They were originally Scottish mercenaries who appeared in the 13th century, but by the 15th century most largetúatha had their own hereditary force of Irishgallóglaigh.[54] Some Anglo-Norman lordships also began usinggallóglaigh in imitation of the Irish.[55] They usually woremail and iron helmets and wieldedsparth axes,claymores, and sometimes spears or lances. Thegallóglaigh furnished the retreating plunderers with a "moving line of defence from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind which they could retreat when pursued".[54] As their armor made them less nimble, they were sometimes planted at strategic spots along the line of retreat. Thekern, horsemen andgallóglaigh had lightly armed servants to carry their weapons into battle.[54]
Warriors were sometimes rallied into battle byblowing horns andwarpipes. According toGerald de Barri (in the 12th century), they did not weararmour, as they deemed it burdensome to wear and "brave and honourable" to fight without it.[51] Instead, most ordinary soldiers fought semi-naked and carried only their weapons anda small round shield –Spenser wrote that these shields were covered with leather and painted in bright colours.[50]Kings and chiefs sometimes went into battle wearing helmets adorned with eagle feathers. For ordinary soldiers, their thick hair often served as a helmet, but they sometimes wore simple helmets made from animal hides.[50]
Artwork from Ireland's Gaelic period is found onpottery,jewellery,weapons,drinkware,tableware,stone carvings andilluminated manuscripts. Irish art from about 300 BC incorporates patterns and styles which developed in west central Europe. By about AD 600, after the Christianization of Ireland had begun, a style melding Irish, Mediterranean and GermanicAnglo-Saxon elements emerged, and was spread to Britain and mainland Europe by theHiberno-Scottish mission. This is known asInsular art orHiberno-Saxon art, which continued in some form in Ireland until the 12th century, although the Viking invasions ended its "Golden Age". Most surviving works of Insular art were either made by monks or made for monasteries, with the exception ofbrooches, which were likely made and used by both clergy and laity. Examples of Insular art from Ireland include theBook of Kells,Muiredach's High Cross, theTara Brooch, theArdagh Hoard theDerrynaflan Chalice, and the lateCross of Cong, which also uses Viking styles.
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AlthoughGerald de Barri had anovertly negative view of the Irish, inTopographia Hibernica (1188) he conceded that they were more skilled at playing music than any other nation he had seen. He claimed that the two main instruments were the "harp" and "tabor" (see alsobodhrán), that their music was fast and lively, and that their songs always began and ended withB-flat.[51] InA History of Irish Music (1905),W. H. Grattan Flood wrote that there were at least ten instruments in general use by the Gaelic Irish. These were thecruit (a small harp) andclairseach (a bigger harp with typically 30 strings), thetimpan (a smallstring instrument played with abow orplectrum), thefeadan (afife), thebuinne (anoboe orflute), theguthbuinne (abassoon-typehorn), thebennbuabhal andcorn (hornpipes), thecuislenna (bagpipes – seeGreat Irish Warpipes), thestoc andsturgan (clarions or trumpets), and thecnamha (castanets).[57] He also mentions thefiddle as being used in the 8th century as compliment to Irish music.[57]
As mentioned before, Gaelic Ireland was split into manyclann territories andkingdoms calledtúath (plural:túatha).[14] Although there was no centralgovernment orparliament, a number of local, regional and national gatherings were held. These combined features ofassemblies andfairs.[14]
In Ireland, the highest of these was thefeis atTeamhair na Rí (Tara), which was held every thirdSamhain.[14] This was a gathering of the leading men of the whole island –kings,lords,chieftains,druids,judges etc.[14] Below this was theóenach (modern spelling:aonach). These were regional or provincial gatherings open to everyone.[14] Examples include that held atTailtin eachLughnasadh, and that held atUisneach eachBealtaine. The main purpose of these gatherings was to promulgate and reaffirm the laws – they were read aloud in public that they might not be forgotten, and any changes in them carefully explained to those present.[14]
Each túath or clann had two assemblies of its own. These were thecuirmtig, which was open to all clann members, and thedal (a term later adopted for the Irish parliament – seeDáil Éireann), which was open only to clann chiefs.[14] Each clann had a further assembly called atocomra, in which the clann chief (toísech, moderntaoiseach) and his deputy/successor (tánaiste) were elected.
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Theprehistory of Ireland included aprotohistorical period, when the literate cultures ofGreece andRome first began totake notice of the Irish, and a further proto-literate period ofogham epigraphy, before the earlyhistorical period began in the early 5th century.
During this period, theGaelstraded with the Roman Empire[58] and also raided and colonized Britain during theend of Roman rule in Britain. TheRomans ofthis era called these Gaelic raidersScoti and their homelandHibernia orScotia.Scoti was aLatin name that first referred to all of the Gaels, whether in Ireland or Great Britain, but later came to refer only to the Gaels innorthern Britain.[59] As time went on, the Gaels beganintensifying their raids and colonies inRoman Britain (c. 200–500 AD).
For much of this period, the island of Ireland was divided into numerousclan territories andkingdoms (known astúatha).
The earlymedieval history of Ireland, often calledEarly Christian Ireland, spans the 5th to 8th centuries, from a gradual emergence out of the protohistoric period (Oghaminscriptions inPrimitive Irish,negative mentions inGreco-Roman ethnography) to the beginning of theViking Age.
Theintroduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century. WithPalladius the eventual firstBishop of Ireland being sent during this period (mid-5th century) byPope Celestine I to preach "ad Scotti in Christum"[8] or in other words to minister to theScoti orIrish "believing in Christ".[60]Early medieval traditions creditSaint Patrick as being the firstPrimate of Ireland.[61]
The Gaelic Kingdom ofDál Riata is said to have been founded in the 5th century by the legendary king Fergus Mór mac Eirc or Fergus Mór inArgyll or "the coast of the Gaels" located in modern-dayScotland.[62] The Dál Riata had a strong seafaring culture and a largenaval fleet.[63]
From the 5th century on, clerics ofChristianised Ireland such asBrigid of Kildare,Saint MacCul,Saint Moluag,Saint Caillín,Columbanus as well as theTwelve Apostles of Ireland:Saint Ciarán of Saighir,Saint Ciarán of Clonmacnoise,Saint Brendan of Birr,Saint Brendan of Clonfert,Saint Columba of Terryglass,Saint Columba,Saint Mobhí,Saint Ruadhán of Lorrha,Saint Seanán,Saint Ninnidh,Saint Laisrén mac Nad Froích andSaint Canice were active in ministry in Ireland and asmissionaries throughout Europe inGaul, theIsle of Mann, inScotland, in theAnglo-SaxonKingdoms of England and in theFrankish Empire thus spreading Gaelic cultural influence toContinental Europe and even as far away asIceland.[64]
By the 8th century, the King of thePicts,Óengus mac Fergusso or Angus I expanded the influence of his kingdom using conquest, subjugation and diplomacy over theGaels ofDal Riata, theBritons ofStrathclyde and theAnglo-Saxons ofNorthumbria.
During this period, in addition tokingdoms ortúatha, the5 main over-kingdoms begin to form. (Old Irishcóiceda, Modern Irishcúige). These wereUlaid (in the north),Connacht (in the west),Laighin (in the southeast),Mumhan (in the south) andMide (in the centre).
Thehistory of Ireland 800–1169 covers the period in the history of Ireland from the firstViking raids to theNorman invasion.
Beginning in 795, small bands ofVikings beganplundering monastic settlements along the coast of Ireland. By 853, Viking leaderAmlaíb had become the firstking of Dublin. He ruled along with his brothersÍmar andAuisle. His dynasty, theUí Ímair ruled over the following decades. During this period there was regular warfare between theVikings and theIrish, and between two separate groups ofNorse fromLochlann: theDubgaill and Finngaill (meaning dark and fair foreigners).Norse settlements were established atDublin,Wexford,Waterford,Cork andLimerick, which became the first large towns in Ireland.[65]
In the mid-9th century, the crowns of both theGaelicDál Riata and theCelticPictish Kingdom were combined under the rule of one person,Cináid Mac Ailpin or Kenneth McAlpin. Kenneth became the firstHigh King of Alba. Combining the territories of both kingdoms to form a new Gaelic over-kingdom in Northern Britain, theKingdom of Alba, which comprises most of what is now modern-day Scotland.[66]
Gaelic Ireland of this era still consisted of the many semi-independent territories called (túatha), however there was a nominal Kingship of the Island. The King was more of a cultural leader and held soft power over the sub Kings who would submit to him, this was akin to later Feudal Kingship but with a lower degree of control and far more devolved power in the hands of sub-Kings who were still rulers in their own right. Viking Kings of Dublin and elsewhere at times, would often recognise the High King as their overlord. Traditionally the King would have come from theUi Neill Clan who held power in sub-Kingdoms ofAillech (Now part of Ulster), andMidhe (the lost Fifth Province, now part ofLeinster). For a large percentage of this period, this was mainly displayed through a rivalry betweenHigh Kings of Ireland from theNorthern andSouthern branches of theUí Néill. The one who came closest to being de facto king over the whole of Ireland, however, wasBrian Bóruma, the firsthigh king in this period not belonging to theUí Néill.
Through military might, Brian went about building a GaelicImperium under hisHigh Kingship as "Imperator Scottorum," or "Emperor of the Gaels",[67] even gaining the submission ofMáel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, his long time rival and a previousHigh King of Ireland himself. Both Brian and Máel Sechnaill were involved in several battles against theVikings and each other: theBattle of Tara, theBattle of Glenmama and finally theBattle of Clontarf in 1014. The last of which saw Brian's demise. Brian's campaign is glorified in theCogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").
Following Brian's death, the political situation became more complex with rivalry for high kingship from several clans and dynasties.Brian's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling over territory led indirectly to theinvasion of the Normans underRichard de Clare (Strongbow) in 1169.
Ireland becameChristianized between the 5th and 7th centuries. PopeAdrian IV, the only English pope, had already issued aPapal Bull in 1155 givingHenry II of England authority toinvade Ireland as a means of curbing Irish refusal to recognize Roman law. Importantly, for later English monarchs, the Bull,Laudabiliter, maintained papalsuzerainty over the island:
There is indeed no doubt, as thy Highness doth also acknowledge, that Ireland and all other islands which Christ the Sun of Righteousness has illumined, and which have received the doctrines of the Christian faith, belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and of the holy Roman Church.
In 1166, after losing the protection ofHigh KingMuirchertach Mac Lochlainn, KingDiarmait Mac Murchada ofLeinster was forcibly exiled by a confederation of Irish forces under KingRuaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair. Fleeing first toBristol and then toNormandy, Diarmait obtained permission fromHenry II of England to use his subjects to regain his kingdom. By the following year, he had obtained these services and in 1169 the main body ofNorman,Welsh andFlemish forces landed in Ireland and quickly retook Leinster and the cities ofWaterford andDublin on behalf of Diarmait. The leader of the Norman force,Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, more commonly known as Strongbow, married Diarmait's daughter,Aoife, and was namedtánaiste to the Kingdom of Leinster. This caused consternation to Henry II, who feared the establishment of a rival Norman state in Ireland. Accordingly, he resolved to visit Leinster to establish his authority.
Henry landed in 1171, proclaimingWaterford andDublin asRoyal Cities. Adrian's successor,Pope Alexander III, ratified the grant of Ireland to Henry in 1172. The 1175Treaty of Windsor between Henry and Ruaidhrí maintained Ruaidhrí as High King of Ireland[68] but codified Henry's control of Leinster, Meath and Waterford. However, with Diarmuid and Strongbow dead, Henry back in England, and Ruaidhrí unable to curb his vassals, the high kingship rapidly lost control of the country.[69] Henry, in 1185, awarded his younger son, John, the titleDominus Hiberniae or "Lord of Ireland" at theCouncil of Oxford. This kept the newly created title, theLordship of Ireland and theKingdom of England personally and legally separate. During the same year, 1185,Prince John made hisfirst expedition to Ireland. However, when John unexpectedly succeededhis brother asKing of England in 1199, theLordship of Ireland fell back into personal union with theKingdom of England, securing its place within the greaterAngevin Empire. In the legal terminology of John's successors, the "lordship of Ireland" referred to thesovereignty vested inthe Crown of England; the corresponding territory was referred to as the "land of Ireland".[70]
By 1261, the weakening of theAnglo-NormanLordship had become manifest following a string of military defeats. In the chaotic situation, local Irish lords won back large amounts of land. The invasion byEdward Bruce in 1315–18 at a time ofgreat famine weakened the Norman economy. TheBlack Death arrived in Ireland in 1348. Because most of the English and Norman inhabitants of Ireland lived in towns and villages, the plague hit them far harder than it did the native Irish, who lived in more dispersed rural settlements. After it had passed, Gaelic Irish language and customs came to dominate the country again. The English-controlled area shrank back tothe Pale, a fortified area around Dublin. Outside the Pale, theHiberno-Norman lords intermarried withGaelic noble families, adopted theIrish language and customs and sided with the Gaelic Irish in political and military conflicts against the Lordship. They became known as theOld English, and in the words of a contemporary English commentator, were "more Irish than the Irish themselves."
The authorities in the Pale worried about theGaelicisation of Norman Ireland, and passed theStatutes of Kilkenny in 1366 banning those of English descent from speaking theIrish language, wearing Irish clothes or inter-marrying with the Irish. The government in Dublin had little real authority. By the end of the 15th century, central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared. England's attentions were diverted by theHundred Years' War (1337–1453) and then by theWars of the Roses (1450–85). Around the country, local Gaelic and Gaelicised lords expanded their powers at the expense of the English government in Dublin. Whereas tributes likecoyne and livery were exacted by chiefs within their own domains, "black rent" wasprotection paymentin kind, typically as cattle, paid by those in neighbouring areas to avoid being raided.[71]
Following the failed attempt by the Scottish KingEdward Bruce (seeIrish Bruce Wars 1315–1318) to drive the Normans out of Ireland, there emerged a number of important Gaelic kingdoms and Gaelic-controlled lordships.
From 1536,Henry VIII of England decided to conquer Ireland and bring it under English control. TheFitzGerald dynasty ofKildare, who had become the effective rulers of the Lordship of Ireland (The Pale) in the 15th century,had become unreliable allies and Henry resolved to bring Ireland under English government control so the island would not become a base for future rebellions or foreign invasions of England. To involve theGaelic nobility and allow them to retain their lands under English law the policy ofsurrender and regrant was applied.
In 1541, Henry upgraded Ireland from alordship to a fullkingdom with theCrown of Ireland Act 1542, partly in response to changing relationships with thepapacy, which still hadsuzerainty over Ireland, following Henry's break with the church. Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland at a meeting of the Irish Parliament that year. This was the first meeting of theIrish Parliament to be attended by theGaelic Irish princes as well as theHiberno-Norman aristocracy.
With the technical institutions of government in place, the next step was to extend the control of theKingdom of Ireland over all of its claimed territory. This took nearly a century, with various English administrations in the process either negotiating or fighting with the independent Irish and Old English lords.The conquest was completed during the reigns ofElizabeth andJames I, after several bloody conflicts including the suppression of theDesmond,Tyrone andInishowen rebellions. The defeat ofthe Gaelic nobility at theSiege of Kinsale in 1601 and final suppression of the various rebellions inUlster by 1608 marked the end of the conquest. The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance, and its aftermath brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms.
In 1603, with theUnion of the Crowns,King James of Scotland also becameKing of England andIreland. James saw theGaels as a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilizing[72] and believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out.[73] James started official policies ofAnglicisation in orderto convert theGaelic nobility of Ireland to that of a Late Feudal model based uponEnglish Law. He also set aboutcolonising the land of the defeated rebel lords withEnglish-speakingProtestant settlers from Britain, in what became known as thePlantation of Ulster. It was meant to establish a loyalBritish Protestant colony in Ireland's most rebellious region and to severGaelic Ireland'shistorical andcultural links withGaelic Scotland.[72]
TheFlight of the Earls in 1607 is seen as a watershed moment for Gaelic Ireland. The flight of bothEarl O'Neill of Tyrone andEarl O'Donnell of Tyrconnell intoexile marked the destruction of the Ireland's independentnobility. This and the aftermath of the Tudor conquest had cleared the way for thePlantation of Ulster. After this point, the English authorities inDublin established greater control over Ireland, establishing – or, at least, attempting to establish – a centralised government for the entire island, and successfully disarmed the Gaelic lordships.[citation needed] Hugh Red O'Donnell died in thearchive castle ofSimancas,Valladolid, in September 1602, when petitioningPhilip III of Spain (1598–1621) for further assistance. His son,Rory O'Donnell, succeeded him as theEarl of Tyrconnell. Hugh O'Neill died in exile inRome on 20 July 1616. Upon news of his death, thecourt poets of Ireland engaged in thecontention of the bards.
Hugh's son,Shane O'Neill was active in armies fighting forMadrid in theLow Countries andSpain. He died inSpanish Service near Barcelona at theBattle of Montjuïc in 1641, fighting against theKingdom of France. During theIrish Confederate Wars in 1641, many of these Gaelic exiles returned to fight for their home, including one ofO'Neill's nephews, Owen.Owen Roe O'Neill was deeply opposed toBritish rule and returned home fromexile indistinguishedSpanish service. These Gaelic exiles brought with them invaluable knowledge of modern military tactics includingpush of pike warfare and Anti-Siege expertise. This knowledge was used to devastating effect by Owen and fellowO'Neillclan membersHugh andFelim during different stages of these conflicts at theBattle of Benburb, theSiege of Clonmel and theSiege of Charlemont respectively.
_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2c_1653.jpg)
Theoutright invasion and conquest byEngland'sNew Model Army underOliver Cromwell and the "free-fire" zones andscorched earth tactics they used in the later stages ofWars of the Three Kingdoms marked a turning point. Theplague,famine, oppressiveCromwellian Settlements,plantation that followed anddeliberate refugee crisis in theWest of Ireland further suppressed the local Gaelic populace. TheGlorious Revolution ofWilliam andMary in England and correspondingWilliamite War in Ireland further negatively affected the local Gaels. The last vestiges of Gaelic Ireland and itsancient nobility were completely wiped away following theJacobite defeats at theBattle of the Boyne andBattle of Aughrim. The period that followed saw theProtestant Ascendancy in Ireland and the passage of repressiveAnti-Catholic laws.
England and Scotlandmerged politically in 1707 after thecrowns of both countries were united in 1603, but the crown of Ireland did notmerge with the Union until 1800. Part of the attraction of the Union for manyIrish Catholics was the promise ofCatholic Emancipation, allowingRoman Catholic MPs, who had not been allowed in theIrish Parliament. This was however blocked by KingGeorge III who argued that emancipating Roman Catholics would breach hisCoronation Oath, and was not realised until 1829.
TheGaelic roots that defined earlyIrish history still persist to this day, despite theAnglicisation of Irish culture and politics. Christianity became a prominent expression ofIrish identityin Ireland. In the time leading up to theGreat Famine of the 1840s, many priests believed that parishioner spirituality was paramount, resulting in a localizedmorphing of Gaelic and Catholic traditions.[74]
TheGaelic revival was the late-nineteenth-centurynational revival of interest in theIrish language (also known asGaeilge) andGaelic culture[75] (includingfolklore,sports,music,arts, etc.) and was an associated part of a greater Celtic cultural revivals inScotland,Brittany,Cornwall,Continental Europe and among the Celtic Diaspora communities:Irish,Scottish,Breton,Cornish andWelsh. With organizations in Ireland such asConradh na Gaeilge andAn Comunn Gàidhealach attempting to restore the prestige of Gaelic culture and thesocio-communal hegemony of theGaelic languages. Many of the participants in theIrish Revolution of 1912–1923 were inspired by these ideals and so when asovereign state was formed in Ireland,post-colonial enthusiasm for the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland was high and promoted through public education. Results were very mixed however and theGaeltacht where native speakers lived continued to retract. In the 1960s and 70s, pressure from groups such as Misneach (supported byMáirtín Ó Cadhain), theGluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly inConnemara; paved the way for the creation of development agencies such asÚdarás na Gaeltachta and state television and radio inIrish.
By the time of our earliest documentary evidence (law texts, genealogies, and annals), the vision of Ireland as a unitary state, ruled by a 'high-king', had apparently disappeared, to be replaced by a patchwork of local tribal kingdoms, each confident in its own distinctiveness.
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)pagan.
{{cite encyclopedia}}:Missing or empty|title= (help){{cite encyclopedia}}:Missing or empty|title= (help){{cite encyclopedia}}:Missing or empty|title= (help){{cite encyclopedia}}:Missing or empty|title= (help)In the Treaty of Windsor, Rory accepted Henry II as the overlord and promised to pay annual tribute gathered from all of Ireland to him. For his part, Rory would remain King of Connaught and High King of all unconquered lands in Ireland.
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