Gabon's original inhabitants were theBambenga. In the 14th century,Bantu migrants also began settling in the area. TheKingdom of Orungu was established around 1700. France colonised the region in the late 19th century. Since its independence from France in 1960, Gabon has had fourpresidents. In the 1990s, it introduced a multi-party system and a democratic constitution that aimed for a more transparent electoral process and reformed some governmental institutions. Despite this, theGabonese Democratic Party (PDG) remained the dominant party until its removal from power during the2023 Gabonese coup d'état.
Bambenga in the area were largely replaced and absorbed byBantu tribes as they migrated. By the 18th century, aMyeni-speaking kingdom known as theKingdom of Orungu formed as a trading centre with the ability to purchase and sell slaves, and fell with the demise of the slave trade in the 1870s.[9]
ExplorerPierre Savorgnan de Brazza led his first mission to the Gabon-Congo area in 1875.[10] He founded the town ofFranceville and was later colonial governor. Some Bantu groups lived in the area when France officially occupied it in 1885.
In 1910, Gabon became a territory ofFrench Equatorial Africa,[11] a federation that survived until 1958. InWorld War II, the Alliesinvaded Gabon to overthrow the pro-Vichy France colonial administration. On 28 November 1958, Gabon became an autonomous republic within theFrench Community, and on 17 August 1960, it became fully independent.[12]
The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, wasLéon M'ba, withOmar Bongo Ondimba as his vice president. After M'ba acceded to power, the press was suppressed, political demonstrations suppressed,freedom of expression curtailed, other political parties gradually excluded from power, and the Constitution changed along French lines to vest power in the Presidency, a post that M'ba assumed himself. When M'ba dissolved theNational Assembly in January 1964 to institute one-party rule,an army coup sought to oust him from power and restore parliamentary democracy. French paratroopers flew in within 24 hours to restore M'ba to power. After days of fighting, the coup ended, and the opposition was imprisoned, with protests and riots ensuing.[citation needed]
When M'Ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president. In March 1968, Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving BDG and establishing a new party – theParti Démocratique Gabonais (PDG). He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate. Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies, using PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that had divided Gabonese politics in the past. Bongo was elected president in February 1975; in April 1975, the position of vice president was abolished and replaced by the position of prime minister, who had no right to automatic succession. Bongo was re-elected President in December 1979 and November 1986 two 7-year terms.[13]
In 1990, economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked demonstrations and strikes by students and workers. In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making wage concessions. He promised to open up PDG and organize a national political conference in March–April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system. PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference. Participants were essentially divided into 2 "loose" coalitions, the ruling PDG and its allies, and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and theGabonese Progress Party.[13]
The April 1990 conference approved political reforms, including the creation of a nationalSenate, decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of anexit visa requirement. In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multiparty democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister,Casimir Oye-Mba. The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from some opposition parties in its cabinet. RSDG drafted a provisional constitution in May 1990 that provided a basicbill of rights and an independent judiciary and retained "strong" executive powers for the president. After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991.[13]
Opposition to PDG continued after the April 1990 conference, and in September 1990, twocoup d'état attempts were uncovered and aborted. With demonstrations after the death of an opposition leader, the first multiparty National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September–October 1990, with PDG garnering a majority.[13]
In 1991, the Parliament of Gabon adopted a new constitution, and the country switched to multiparty elections.
Following PresidentOmar Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results. Civil disturbances and violent repression led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement. These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994, under which some opposition figures were included in a government of national unity. This arrangement broke down, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics. PDG won in the legislative election, and some cities, includingLibreville, elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election.[13]
Facing a divided opposition, President Omar Bongo coasted to re-election in December 1998. While some of Bongo's opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, some international observers characterized the results as representative, "despite many perceived irregularities". Legislative elections held in 2001–2002 were boycotted by several smaller opposition parties and were criticized for their administrative weaknesses, producing a National Assembly dominated by PDG and allied independents. In November 2005, President Omar Bongo was elected for his sixth term. He won re-election, and opponents claim that the balloting process was marred by irregularities. There were some instances of violence following the announcement of his win.[13] National Assembly elections were held in December 2006. Some seats contested because of voting irregularities were overturned by theConstitutional Court, and the subsequent run-off elections in 2007 yielded a PDG-controlled National Assembly.[13]
Following the death of President Omar Bongo on 8 June 2009 due to cardiac arrest at a Spanish hospital in Barcelona, Gabon entered a period of political transition. Per the amended constitution,Rose Francine Rogombé, the President of the Senate, assumed the role of Interim President on 10 June 2009. The subsequent presidential elections, held on 30 August 2009, marked a historic moment as they were the first in Gabon's history not to feature Omar Bongo as a candidate. With a crowded field of 18 contenders, including Omar Bongo's son and ruling party leader,Ali Bongo, the elections were closely watched both domestically and internationally.
After a rigorous three-week review by the Constitutional Court, Ali Bongo was officially declared the winner, leading to his inauguration on 16 October 2009.[13] However, the announcement of his victory was met with scepticism by some opposition candidates, sparking sporadic protests across the country. Nowhere was this discontent more pronounced than inPort-Gentil, where allegations of electoral fraud resulted in violent demonstrations. The unrest claimed four lives and led to significant property damage, including attacks on the French Consulate and a local prison. Subsequently, security forces were deployed, and a curfew remained in effect for over three months.[13]
In June 2010, a partial legislative by-election was held, marking the emergence of the Union Nationale (UN) coalition, primarily comprising defectors from the ruling PDG party following Omar Bongo's death. The contest for the five available seats saw both the PDG and UN claiming victory, underscoring the political tensions that persisted in the aftermath of the presidential transition.[13]
The political landscape was further disrupted in January 2019 when a group of soldiers attempted a coup against President Ali Bongo. Despite initial unrest, the coup ultimately failed, but it highlighted the ongoing challenges facing Gabon's political stability.[14]
Against this backdrop of political volatility, Gabon achieved significant milestones on the international stage. In June 2021, it became the first country to receive payments for reducing emissions resulting from deforestation and forest degradation. Additionally, in June 2022, Gabon, along withTogo, joined theCommonwealth of Nations, signalling its commitment to multilateral engagement and cooperation.[15]
In August 2023, following the announcement that Ali Bongo had won a third term in thegeneral election, military officers announced that they had taken power in acoup d'état and cancelled the election results. They also dissolved state institutions, including the Judiciary, Parliament and the constitutional assembly.[16][17] On 31 August 2023, army officers who seized power, ending the Bongo family's 55-year hold on power, named GenBrice Oligui Nguema as the country's transitional leader.[18] On 4 September 2023, General Nguema was sworn in as interim president of Gabon.[19]
As a consequence of the coup, on the 18 September, 2023, Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations. The partial suspension excluded Gabon from the Councils of the Commonwealth, and the organization's meetings and events, such as theCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. This was done as a potential preamble to a full suspension from the Commonwealth, unless "acceptable progress is not made within two years".[20] Gabon was restored to a position of full membership within the Commonwealth on 15 July 2025, with the organization stating that thePresidential election held on 12 April 2025 “largely reflected the will of the people who voted and that it was conducted in a credible, transparent and inclusive manner".[21]
The presidential republic form of government is stated under the 1961 constitution (revised in 1975, rewritten in 1991, and revised in 2003). The president is elected by universal suffrage for a seven-year term; a 2003 constitutional amendment removed presidential term limits. The president can appoint and dismiss the prime minister, the cabinet, and judges of the independent Supreme Court. The president has other powers, such as the authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, and conduct referendums.[13] Gabon has abicameral legislature with a National Assembly and Senate. The National Assembly has 120 deputies who are popularly elected for a five-year term. The Senate is composed of 102 members who are elected by municipal councils and regional assemblies and serve for six years. The Senate was created in the 1990–1991 constitutional revision and was not brought into being until after the 1997 local elections. The President of the Senate is next in succession to the President.[13]
In 1990, the government made changes to Gabon's political system. A transitional constitution was drafted in May 1990 as an outgrowth of the national political conference in March–April and later revised by a constitutional committee. Among its provisions were a Western-stylebill of rights, the creation of a National Council of Democracy to oversee the guarantee of those rights, a governmental advisory board on economic and social issues, and an independent judiciary. After approval by the National Assembly, the PDG Central Committee, and the President, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991. Multiparty legislative elections were held in 1990–1991 when opposition parties had not been declared formally legal. In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the legalization of opposition parties.[13]
After PresidentOmar Bongo was re-elected in 1993, in a disputed election where only 51% of votes were cast, social and political disturbances led to the 1994 Paris Conference and Accords. These provided a framework for the next elections. Local and legislative elections were delayed until 1996–1997. In 1997, constitutional amendments put forward years earlier were adopted to create the Senate and the position ofVice President and to extend the President's term to seven years.[13]
In October 2009, PresidentAli Bongo Ondimba began efforts to streamline the government. To reduce corruption and government bloat, he eliminated 17 minister-level positions, abolished the Vice Presidency and reorganized the portfolios of some ministries, bureaus and directorates. In November 2009, Bongo announced a new vision for the modernization of Gabon, called "Gabon Emergent". This program contains three pillars: Green Gabon, Service Gabon, and Industrial Gabon. The goals of Gabon Emergent are to diversify the economy so that Gabon becomes less reliant on petroleum, to eliminate corruption, and to modernize the workforce. Under this program, exports of raw timber have been banned, a government-wide census was held, the work day was changed to eliminate a long midday break, and a national oil company was created.[13]
On 25 January 2011, opposition leaderAndré Mba Obame claimed the presidency, saying the country should be run by someone the people wanted. He selected 19 ministers for his government, and the entire group, along with hundreds of others, spent the night at theUnited Nations headquarters. On January 26, the government dissolved Mba Obame's party. AU chairmanJean Ping said that Mba Obame's action "hurts the integrity of legitimate institutions and also endangers the peace, the security and the stability of Gabon."[24] Interior Minister Jean-François Ndongou accused Mba Obame and his supporters oftreason.[24] TheUN Secretary-General,Ban Ki-moon, said that he recognized Ondimba as the only official Gabonese president.[25][self-published source?]
The2016 presidential election was disputed, with "very close" official results reported. Protests broke out in the capital and met repression, which culminated in the alleged bombing of the opposition party headquarters by the presidential guard. Between 50 and 100 citizens were killed by security forces, and 1,000 were arrested.[26] International observers criticized irregularities, including unnaturally high turnout reported for some districts. The country's supreme court threw out some suspect precincts, and the ballots have been destroyed. The election was declared in favour of the incumbent Ondimba. The European Parliament issued two resolutions denouncing the unclear results of the election and calling for an investigation into the human rights violations.[27]
A few days after the controversialpresidential election in August 2023, a group of military officials declared amilitary coup and that they had overthrown the government and deposed Ali Bongo Ondimba. The announcement came hours after Bongo was officially re-elected for a third term.[28]General Brice Oligui Nguema was appointed as the transitional leader. This event marked the eighth instance of military intervention in the region since 2020, raising concerns about democratic stability.[29]
Since independence, Gabon has followed a nonaligned policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing each side of divided countries. In intra-African affairs, it espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favours regulated private enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth. It involved itself in mediation efforts inChad, theCentral African Republic,Angola, theRepublic of the Congo, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo (D.R.C.), andBurundi. In December 1999, through the mediation efforts of President Bongo, a peace accord was signed in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion. President Bongo was involved in the continuing D.R.C. peace process and played a role in mediating the crisis inIvory Coast.
It has a professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided intoarmy,navy,air force,gendarmerie, and police force. A 1,800-member guard provides security for the president.[13]
It is divided into 9 provinces, which are subdivided into 50departments. The president appoints the provincial governors, the prefects, and the subprefects.[13]
Geologically, Gabon is primarilyArchaean andPalaeoproterozoic igneous andmetamorphic basement rock, belonging to the stable continental crust of theCongo Craton. Some formations are more than 2 billion years old. Some rock units are overlain by marinecarbonate, lacustrine and continental sedimentary rocks, and unconsolidated sediments and soils that formed in the last 2.5 million years of theQuaternary. The rifting apart of thesupercontinentPangaea created rift basins that filled with sediments and formed the hydrocarbons.[36] There are Oklo reactor zones, anatural nuclear fission reactor on Earth which was active 2 billion years ago. The site was discovered during uranium mining in the 1970s to supply the French nuclear power industry.
Its largest river is theOgooué, which is 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) long. It has threekarst areas where there are hundreds of caves located in the dolomite and limestone rocks. A National Geographic Expedition visited some caves in the summer of 2008 to document them.[37]
Gabon is highly vulnerable toclimate change due to its dense coastal population, economic hubs along the shore, and dependence onrain-fed agriculture.[38]Rising sea levels threaten to erode the coastline and contaminate freshwater sources with saltwater. The country is already experiencing more frequent and severeextreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, and storms, which damage infrastructure, displace communities, and disruptfood security and livelihoods.[39] To adapt, Gabon prioritises protecting its coastal areas, as well as its fishing, agriculture, and forestry industries.[38] Its vast forests act as a netcarbon sink.[40][41] It is recognized as a global leader inclimate action and is widely considered the most carbon-positive country in the world, due to its strongconservation efforts.[39]
Gabon has a large number of protected animal and plant species. The country'sbiodiversity is one of the most varied on the planet.[43]
Gabon is home of 604 species of birds, 98 species of amphibians, between 95 and 160 species of reptiles and 198 different species of mammals.[44] In Gabon there are rare species, such as the Gabonpangolin and thegrey-necked rockfowl, or endemics, such as the Gabonguenon.
The country is one of the most varied and important fauna reserves in Africa:[45] it is an important refuge forchimpanzees (whose number, in 2003, was estimated between 27,000 and 64,000)[citation needed] andgorillas (28,000-42,000 estimated in 1983).[46] The "Gorilla and Chimpanzee Study Station" inside theLopé National Park[citation needed] is dedicated to their study.
More than 10,000 species of plants and 400 species of trees form the flora of Gabon. Gabon'srainforest is considered the densest and most virgin in Africa. However, the country's enormous population growth is causing heavy deforestation that threatens this valuable ecosystem. Likewise, poaching endangers wildlife. Gabon's national flower isDelonix Regia.
Change in per capita GDP of Gabon, 1950–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.
Oil revenue constitutes roughly 46% of the government's budget, 43% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and 81% of exports. Oil production declined from its higher point of 370,000 barrels per day in 1997. Some estimates suggest that Gabonese oil will be expended by 2025. Planning is beginning for an after-oil scenario.[13] The rich Grondin Oil Field was discovered in 1971 in 50 m (160 ft) water depths 40 km (25 mi) offshore in ananticline saltstructural trap in Batangasandstones ofMaastrichtian age, but about 60% of its estimated reserves had been extracted by 1978.[49]
As of 2023, Gabon produced about 200,000 barrels a day (bpd) of crude oil.[50] Gabon’s economy remains heavily dependent on oil and other natural resources, leaving it exposed to global market shifts and climate-related risks.[51]
"Overspending" on theTrans-Gabon Railway, the CFA franc devaluation of 1994, and periods of lower oil prices caused debt problems.[13]
SuccessiveInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) missions have criticized the Gabonaise government for overspending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from thecentral bank, and slipping on the schedule forprivatization and administrative reform. In September 2005, Gabon successfully concluded a 15-month Stand-By Arrangement with the IMF. A three-year Stand-By Arrangement with the IMF was approved in May 2007. Due to the2008 financial crisis and social developments surrounding the death of President Omar Bongo and the elections, Gabon was unable to meet its economic goals under the Stand-By Arrangement in 2009.[13]
Gabon's oil revenues have given it a per capita GDP of $8,600. A "skewed income distribution" and "poor social indicators" are "evident".[52] The richest 20% of the population earn over 90% of the income while about a third of the Gabonese population lives in poverty.[13]
The economy is dependent on extraction. Before the discovery of oil, logging was the "pillar" of the Gabonese economy. Then, logging and manganese mining are the "next-most-important" income generators. Some explorations suggest the presence of the world's largest unexploited iron ore deposit. For some who live in rural areas without access to employment opportunities in extractive industries, remittances from family members in urban areas or subsistence activities provide income.[13]
Foreign and local observers have lamented the lack of diversity in the Gabonese economy. Factors that have "limited the development of new industries" were listed as follows:
The market is "small", about a million
dependent on imports from France
unable to capitalize on regional markets
Entrepreneurial zeal is not always present among the Gabonese
a "fairly regular" stream of oil "rent", even if it is diminishing
Further investment in the agricultural or tourism sectors is "complicated by poor infrastructure". Some processing and service sectors are "largely dominated by a few prominent local investors".[13]
At the World Bank and IMF's insistence, the government embarked in the 1990s on a program of privatization of its state-owned companies and administrative reform, including reducing public sector employment and salary growth. The government has voiced a commitment to work toward an economic transformation of the country.[13]
Gabon's energy comes from two main sources: solidbiofuels and waste (accounting for 75%), andfossil fuels, particularly oil.[53] Just under half (48%) of Gabon's share of power generation comes fromrenewables.[53] Nearly two-thirds of the population of Gabon has access to electricity.[53] However, rural electrification remains limited - only 15% of rural areas had electricity as of 2014.[54] The country aims to provide electricity to 85% of rural areas by 2025 and universal access to electricity by 2035.[54] Most of Gabon's rural population is dependent onbiomass fuels for cooking and heating, such as wood and charcoal.[55]
In 2023, the country accounted for just over 0.04% of globalgreenhouse gas emissions (24.7 million tonnes). Gabon has pledged to staycarbon neutral beyond 2050 and, with adequate support, aims to maintain net carbon removals of 100 million tons CO2 equivalent per year beyond that date.[51] It also seeks to expand itsrenewable energy sector.[56]
Gabon has at least 40ethnic groups,[13] includingFang,Myènè,Punu-Échira,Nzebi-Adouma,Teke-Mbete, Mèmbè,Kota, Akélé.[60] There are indigenousPygmy peoples: theBongo, andBaka.[13] The latter speak the only non-Bantu language in Gabon. More than 10,000 native French live in Gabon, including an estimated 2,000 dual nationals.[13]
Some ethnicities are spread throughout Gabon, leading to contact, interaction among the groups, and intermarriage.
French is the sole official language. It is estimated that 80% of the population can speak French and that 30% of Libreville residents are native speakers of the language.
Nationally, a majority of the Gabonese people speak indigenous languages according to their ethnic group; this proportion is lower than in most other Sub-Saharan African countries. The 2013 census found that 63.7% of Gabon's population could speak a Gabonese language, broken down by 86.3% in rural areas and 60.5% in urban areas, speaking at least one national language.[63]
Religions practised in Gabon includeChristianity (Roman Catholicism andProtestantism),Islam, and traditional indigenous religious beliefs.[65] Some people practise elements of bothChristianity and indigenous religious beliefs.[65] Approximately 79% of the population (53% Catholic) practise one of the denominations ofChristianity; 10% practiseIslam (mainlySunni); the remainder practise other religions.
A private hospital was established in 1913 inLambaréné byAlbert Schweitzer. By 1985, there were 28 hospitals, 87 medical centres, and 312 infirmaries and dispensaries. As of 2004[update], there were an estimated 29 physicians per 100,000 people, and "approximately 90% of the population had access to health care services".
In 2000, 70% of the population had access to "safe drinking water" and 21% had "adequate sanitation". A government health program treats such diseases asleprosy,sleeping sickness,malaria,filariasis,intestinal worms, andtuberculosis. Rates for immunization of children under the age of 1 were 97% for tuberculosis and 65% forpolio. Immunization rates forDPT andmeasles were 37% and 56%, respectively. Gabon has a domestic supply of pharmaceuticals from a factory in Libreville.
Thetotal fertility rate has decreased from 5.8 in 1960 to 4.2 children per mother during childbearing years in 2000. 10% of all births were "low birth weight". Thematernal mortality rate was 520 per 100,000 live births as of 1998. In 2005, theinfant mortality rate was 55.35 per 1,000 live births, and life expectancy was 55.02 years. As of 2002, the overall mortality rate was estimated at 17.6 per 1,000 inhabitants.
TheHIV/AIDSprevalence is estimated to be 5.2% of the adult population (ages 15–49).[66] As of 2009[update], approximately 46,000 people were living with HIV/AIDS.[67] There were an estimated 2,400 deaths from AIDS in 2009 – down from 3,000 deaths in 2003.[68]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Gabon ranks 78th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Gabon's GHI score is 17.4, which indicates a moderate level of hunger.[69]
Its education system is regulated by two ministries: the Ministry of Education, in charge of pre-kindergarten through the last high school grade, and the Ministry of Higher Education and Innovative Technologies, in charge of universities, higher education, and professional schools.
Education is compulsory for children ages 6 to 16 under the Education Act. Some children in Gabon start their school lives by attending nurseries or "Crèche", then kindergarten, known as "Jardins d'enfants". At age 6, they are enrolled in primary school, "École Primaire", which is made up of 6 grades. The next level is "École Secondaire", which is made up of 7 grades. The planned graduation age is 19 years. Those who graduate can apply for admission to institutions of higher learning, including engineering schools or business schools. As of 2012, the literacy rate of a population ages 15 and above was 82%.[70]
The government has used oil revenue for school construction, paying teachers' salaries, and promoting education, including in rural areas. Maintenance of school structures and teachers' salaries has been declining. In 2002, the gross primary enrollment rate was 132%, and in 2000, the net primary enrollment rate was 78%. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school. As of 2001, 69% of children who started primary school were "likely" to reach grade 5. Problems in the education system include "poor management and planning, lack of oversight, poorly qualified teachers", and "overcrowded classrooms".[71] There are various universities in Gabon which are being chartered, licensed or accredited by the appropriate Gabonese higher education-related organization.[72]
Gabon's cultural heritage, rooted in an oral tradition for much of its history, began to flourish with the spread of literacy in the 21st century. Rich in folklore and mythology, the country is home to a tapestry of traditions that have been preserved and passed down through generations. Custodians of these traditions, known as "raconteurs," work to ensure their continuity, nurturing practices like the mvett among the Fangs and the Ingwala among the Nzebis.
Central to Gabonese culture are its iconic masks, each imbued with unique significance and craftsmanship. Among these are the renowned n'goltang masks of the Fang people and the intricate reliquary figures of theKota. These masks hold crucial roles in various ceremonies, including those marking significant life events such as marriage, birth, and funerals. Crafted by traditionalists using rare local woods and other precious materials, these masks serve as artistic expressions and vessels of cultural heritage.
It has an array of folk styles. Imported rock and hip hop from the US and UK are in Gabon, as arerumba,makossa andsoukous. Some folk instruments include the obala, thengombi, thebalafon and drums.[73]
Radio-Diffusion Télévision Gabonaise (RTG), which is owned and operated by the government, broadcasts inFrench and Indigenous languages. Colour television broadcasts have been introduced in some cities. In 1981, a commercial radio station,Africa No. 1, began operations. It has participation from the French and Gabonese governments and private European media.
In 2004, the government operated 2 radio stations, and another 7 were privately owned. There were 2 government television stations and 4 privately owned. In 2003, there were an estimated 488 radios and 308 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 11.5 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. In 2003, there were 22.4 personal computers for every 1,000 people, and 26 of every 1,000 people had access to theInternet. The national press service is the Gabonese Press Agency, which publishes a daily paper,Gabon-Matin (circulation 18,000 as of 2002).
L'Union inLibreville, the government-controlled daily newspaper, had an average daily circulation of 40,000 in 2002. The weeklyGabon d'Aujourd'hui is published by the Ministry of Communications. There are about 9 privately owned periodicals which are either independent or affiliated with political parties. These are published in certain numbers that have been delayed by financial constraints. The constitution of Gabon provides for free speech and a free press, and the government supports these rights. Some periodicals actively criticize the government, and foreign publications are available.
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^Vidal, J.,"Geology of Grondin Field, 1980", inGiant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade: 1968–1978, AAPG Memoir 30, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists,ISBN0891813063, pp.577–590.
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