Muhammad bin Suleyman[a] (Azerbaijani:Məhəmməd Süleyman oğlu,مَحمد سلیمان اوغلی; 1483–1556), better known by hispen nameFuzuli (Füzuli,فضولی), was a 16th-century poet who composed works in his nativeAzerbaijani, as well asPersian andArabic. He is regarded as one of the greatest poets ofTurkic literature and a prominent figure in bothAzerbaijani andOttoman literature. Fuzuli's work was widely known and admired throughout the Turkic cultural landscape from the 16th to the 19th centuries, with his fame reaching as far asCentral Asia andIndia.
Born in 1483 in modern-day Iraq, Fuzuli studied literature, mathematics, astronomy, and languages as a child. During his lifetime, his homeland changed hands between theAq Qoyunlu,Safavid, andOttoman states. He composed poetry for officials in all three empires, writing his first known poem toShah Alvand Mirza of the Aq Qoyunlu. Fuzuli wrote most of his poetry during the Ottoman rule of Iraq, which is why he is also sometimes called an Ottoman poet. Throughout his life, he had severalpatrons but never found one that fully satisfied him—as he wrote—and his desire to join a royal court was never realised. Despite wishing to see places likeTabriz in modern-day Iran,Anatolia, and India, he never travelled outside Iraq. In 1556, Fuzuli died from the plague and was buried inKarbala.
Fuzuli is best known for his Azerbaijani works, especially hisghazals (a form of love poem) and hislyric poemLeylī va Macnūn, which is an interpretation of a Middle Eastern story of tragic love. He also wrotedīvāns (collections of poems) in Azerbaijani, Persian, and possibly Arabic. His style has been described as being distinguished by his "intense expression of feelings"[3] and his use ofmystic metaphors and symbols. His poetry shows influences from Persian poets likeJami, andHafez, as well as Azerbaijani poets likeNizami,Habibi andNasimi.
Fuzuli played a role in the development of the Azerbaijani language, with his writings being described as elevating Azerbaijani poetry and language to new heights.[4] His work has been characterised as a reconciliation of Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic literary practices, as well as ofShia andSunni beliefs.[5] He remains a popular poet in Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.
Fuzuli, whose given name wasMuhammad[b] and whose father's name wasSuleyman,[7] was born in 1483.[2] He wrote under the nameFuzuli,[c] which can be translated either as "presumptuous, superfluous" or "exalted, superior, virtuous". In his Persiandīvān (a collection of poems), he wrote that he picked this name to stand out, knowing that no one else would choose such a pen name.[10] Little is known about Fuzuli's youth.[11] He was probably aShia Muslim[d] ofAzerbaijani Turkic origin, descending from theBayat tribe.[15] Although some contemporary sources refer to him asFuz̤ūlī-yi Baghdādī (lit.'Fuzuli ofBaghdad'), suggesting he was born or raised in that city or its surroundings, other sources cite the nearby cities ofNajaf,Hilla, orKarbala as his birthplace.[16] His father was reported to have once been amufti (Islamic jurist) in Hilla,[17] which suggests that Fuzuli likely came from an educated family.[18] As a child, he studied literature, mathematics, astronomy, and languages,[19] learningPersian andArabic in addition to his nativeAzerbaijani.[20] He had an interest in poetry since his childhood,[2] with his poems suggesting that his initial inspiration was drawn from the works of the late-15th-century Azerbaijani poetHabibi.[21]
Fuzuli lived in Iraq under theAq Qoyunlu confederation, which ruled the region between 1470 and the conquest of the region byShah Ismail I of theIranianSafavid dynasty in 1508. By the time of the Safavid takeover, Fuzuli was already a popular young poet[22] and had dedicated his first known poem, a Persianqaṣīdah (eulogy), toShah Alvand Mirza of the Aq Qoyunlu.[23] After 1514, the poet receivedpatronage from Ibrahim Khan Mawsillu, the Safavid administrator of Baghdad, whom he met during Mawsillu's visit to Najaf and Karbala.[24] He dedicated his first known Azerbaijani poem, amas̱navī (a poem written in rhymingcouplets) entitledBang va Bādah (lit.'Hashish and Wine'), to Ismail I and twoqaṣīdahs and onetarjī'band [tr] (a poem with repeating verses) to Mawsillu.[25] After Mawsillu was murdered by his own nephew in 1527, Fuzuli lost his patron and moved to either Hilla or Najaf, likely because he could not find another reliable patron among the Safavid nobles.[26] During this time, he worked as a custodian of theImam Ali Shrine in Najaf.[27] Despite his employment, he did not have much money and relied on different patrons for support.[28] His life between 1527 and 1534 is largely unknown.[29]
TheImam Husayn Shrine, where Fuzuli worked as a candle-lighter later in his life
WhenSultan Suleiman I of theOttoman Empire captured Baghdad in 1534, Fuzuli was already in his fifties.[3] He presented thesultan with a longqaṣīdah and also wroteqaṣīdahs to Ottoman officials in his entourage in order to earn their favour.[30] One of these officials,Celalzade Mustafa Çelebi [tr], was appointednişancı (head of the Ottoman Empire's imperialchancery) while in Baghdad and arranged for the poet to receive a daily grant of nineakçes from the excess of donations made to Shia shrines.[3] When Fuzuli was unable to obtain the money from the officers of theMinistry of Evkaf, who were responsible for distributing it, he expressed his disappointment in a poetic letter calledŞikāyatnāmah (lit.''Complaint''), written in Azerbaijani and addressed to Çelebi.[31] In the letter, he declared that he had abandoned all hope, explaining that he had been greatly affected by the political and theological instability of his age.[2] His stipend was restored following the letter.[32] At the time, he was working as a candle-lighter at theBektashiconvent in theImam Husayn Shrine in Karbala.[33] He wrote in his poems that he had never found a patron who satisfied his needs and his desire to join a royal court had never been realised.[34] Despite expressing a strong desire to see places likeTabriz in modern-day Iran,Anatolia, andIndia, he never travelled outside modern-day Iraq.[35] In 1556, he died from the plague, either in Baghdad or Karbala,[e] and was buried in Karbala near the Imam Husayn Shrine, in atürbah (a small tomb-mausoleum).[37] According to Bektashi oral tradition, thetürbah was built by Abdü'l-mü'min Dede, the Bektashisheikh (a spiritual guide) of Fuzuli, and the poet was buried next to him.[f][39]
Fuzuli composed poetry andprose in Azerbaijani, Persian and Arabic. Fifteen of his works are extant.[40] TheEncyclopædia Iranica distinguishes his work by "the way in which he integrates the mystic and the erotic, in the combination of the conventionality of his topics with the sincerity of his style, and in his intense expression of feelings of passionate love, of pity for the unfortunate, and of patience in the face of adversity".[3] His frequent use of love themes in his poetry has earned him the nicknamepoet of love by scholars.[5] Abdülkadir Karahan, a scholar of medieval Turkic literature, notes that what distinguished Fuzuli was his "sincerity, enthusiasm, simplicity, sensitivity, and power of expression".[36] Alireza Asgharzadeh, an academic studying Iranian and Azerbaijani culture, describes Fuzuli's poetry as having "manifested the spirit of a profound humanism, reflecting the discontent of both the masses and the poet himself towardstotalitarianism,feudal lords, andestablishment religion".[41] His poems have also been described by the literary researcher Muhsin Macit as having a "multi-layered structure" because of his "skillful use of metaphors and mystic symbols".[42] Macit has also stated that Fuzuli's poems in Azerbaijani "have a multi-faceted structure, which, combined with perfection of expression, gives them permanence".[2] His works show influence from Persian poets likeNizami,Jami, andHafez, as well as Azerbaijani poets like Habibi andNasimi.[42]
A mountain suddenly before him rose. It was majestic in its calm repose And awe-inspiring, for above it soared Swift-winged falcons, and within were stored, Deep in its bowels, such precious stones and rare As can but be imagined. Twas not bare Of greenery, far from it; full 'twas grown With trees and luscious grasses, while its cone Like brightest silver gleamed. The fowls it fed, And many springs, and oft the dead. And barren desert stretching nigh, a plea Might send to it and humbly, wordlessly Ask to be given life, for was it not Life's very source and had it not begot By Heaven been and granted strength and might And rich and gorgeous beauty to delight
— "Leyli and Majnun", trans. Irina Zheleznova[43][g]
Fuzuli is best known for his works in Azerbaijani, especially hisghazals (a form of love poem) and hismas̱navīLeylī va Macnūn (lit.'Leylī and Macnūn').[45] Written in 1535 or 1536,[h] the latter is alyric poem that interprets theMiddle Eastern story of the tragic romance betweenLeylī and Macnūn. Fuzuli reveals in the work that he was prompted to write it upon the request of some Ottoman poets who had accompanied Sultan Suleiman during his invasion of Baghdad. Accepting the request as a challenge, he completed the work within a year.[48] Before beginning the work, he studied Persian versions of the story, particularly drawing inspiration from the 12th-century poet Nizami's rendition. Despite this, Fuzuli made significant changes to the narrative.[3] For instance, while Nizami's work concludes with Majnun's death, Fuzuli's version sees the two lovers reunited in heaven and their graves transformed intotürbahs.[49]
His interpretation of the story generated more interest than previous Arabic and Persian versions, which theTurkish literature scholar İskender Pala attributes to the sincerity and lyricism of the poet's expression.[49] The work has been described by theEncyclopædia Iranica as "the culmination of the Turk[ic]mas̱navī tradition in that it raised the personal and human love-tragedy to the plane of mystical longing and ethereal aspiration".[3] Through his interpretation, the story of Leylī and Macnūn became widely known and Fuzuli's poem is considered one of the greatest works ofTurkic literature.[50]
Superiority of lineage and nobility of birth are accidental. O base man, take no pride in anything but your own virtue. Do not lean on kinship with rulers and service of princes, or take credit for these things, as they are vain. If the prerequisite of a craft is a sound hand, do not commit yourself to it, do not set your hopes on it! Do not base a firm structure of hope on property and wealth, which are impermanent and transitory. If you have a desire for lasting merit, strive for knowledge and do not be ashamed to learn.
Fuzuli also wrote several works in Persian, including adīvān that comprises 410ghazals, 46qiṭ'ahs, several dozenqaṣīdahs, over a hundredrübā'īs, and more.[l][67] Karahan states that this collection of poems demonstrates that the poet's proficiency in Persian was equal to that of any classical Iranian poet.[66] The collection opens with a prose preface, where the poet praises the merits of poetry, his enduring fascination with it, and its ability to turn pain into pleasure.[3] In thedīvān, he shows influences from Persian poets like Hafez and Jami.[66]
Additionally, Fuzuli wroteRisālah-i Mu'ammīyāt (lit.'Treatise of Riddles'), a work consisting of 190 riddle poems, andAnīs al-Qalb (lit.'Close to the Heart'), a 134-couplet-longqaṣīdah.[63] The latter piece is in the form of anaṣīḥatnāmah, a type of guidance letter for Ottoman sultans, that Fuzuli wrote for Sultan Suleiman. In theqaṣīdah, Fuzuli offers guidance to the Sultan on how to govern and serve the people. According to the professor of Turkic literature Hamide Demirel, Fuzuli presents the people's viewpoint towards a tyrannical ruler, presenting his opinions "in what were for the age very advanced terms" on the appropriate relationships between the populace, the Sultan, and the state.[71] Demirel states that the language used in the work is stronger than a typicalnaṣīḥatnāmah and even possesses characteristics of a revolutionary manifesto. She concludes from Fuzuli's works that "he must have been no less high-minded as a man than he was great as a poet".[72]
Arabic works by Fuzuli include elevenqaṣīdahs and a prose work titledMaṭla' al-I'tiqād (lit.'The Birth of the Belief').[m] The prose work analyses the origins and destiny of humanity according to the Islamic theological disciplineʿIlm al-Kalām. Fuzuli presents the perspectives of Greek and Muslim philosophers on these topics in the work. The only known manuscript copy is housed in the library of theAsiatic Museum inSaint Petersburg, Russia.[74] His Arabicqaṣīdahs are believed to be fragments from a largerdīvān.[66] All of them discuss Muhammad and his cousin and son-in-lawAli, who is also the first ShiaImam. Mazıoğlu states that Fuzuli'sqaṣīdahs to Ali are indicative of his Shia devotion. The content and metaphors used in his Arabicqaṣīdahs are similar to those in his Azerbaijani and Persian ones.[75] Mazıoğlu adds that theseqaṣīdahs are "perfect in terms of expression and form", demonstrating his proficiency in the Arabic language.[76]
Azerbaijani stamp commemorating the 500th anniversary of Fuzuli's birth, 1994[n]
Described by Kathleen Burrill, a professor of Turkish studies, as the "foremost of all the Azeri [Azerbaijani] poets",[77] Fuzuli is also regarded as one of the greatest Turkic poets.[78] He had a major influence onAzerbaijani andOttoman literature, and is sometimes considered an Ottoman poet because he composed most of his poetry after the Ottoman conquest of Iraq.[79] His work also had an impact on literature written inChagatai, a Turkic literary language that was once widely spoken acrossCentral Asia; later writers in Ottoman and Chagatai literature drew on the poet's work because of his ability to reinterpret traditional themes and ideas through his poetry, which brought the two literary traditions closer together.[34] Bektashis consider Fuzuli to be one of the "Seven Great Poets" who lived between 14th and 16th centuries and represent Bektashi literature.[o][80] His work has been characterised as a successful reconciliation of Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic literary practices, as well as of Shia and Sunni beliefs.[5] He had a son who was also a poet and adopted the nameFazli in tribute to his father.[p] Fazli is believed to have received his poetic education from Fuzuli, and wrote both religious and secular poems in Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic.[81]
Widely recognised and admired throughout the Turkic cultural landscape from the 16th to the 19th centuries, Fuzuli's work was famous not only in the Ottoman Empire, Iran, and Central Asia, but also in theIndian subcontinent, as indicated by Indian library catalogues. The poems were transcribed byscribes from various linguistic backgrounds using different writing systems over a vast area.[61] Fuzuli'sLeylī va Macnūn was particularly popular in India's Muslim-inhabited regions. As manyMuslim Indians migrated to places likeSouth Africa, the work's popularity spread there as well. This has elevated Fuzuli's prominence amongSouth African Muslims, who view Leylī and Macnūn as the "Islamic equivalents of whatRomeo and Juliet have stood for culturally, and literarily, in the West", as described by the literary scholar Salvador Faura.[82] Some of Fuzuli's works have been translated into English.Ṣöḥbat al-As̱mār was translated by theTurkologistGunnar Jarring in 1936 inLund under the titleThe Contest of the Fruits, andLeylī va Macnūn was translated by the writer-translator Sofi Huri in 1970 in London under the titleLeyla and Mejnun.[83]
Fuzuli's poetry played an important role in the development of the Azerbaijani language, with the modern scholar Sakina Berengian referring to him as the "Ferdowsi and Hafez of Azeri literature", comparing him to two poets regarded as among the greatest inPersian literature, and stating that Azerbaijani poetry and language reached new heights in his writings.[4] Karahan regarded Fuzuli as a "brilliant linguist" because of his ability to compose poetry in non-native languages without any errors in language or technique. While he drew inspiration from earlier Persian works for most of his Azerbaijani pieces, he was able to add a "particular stamp of his personality" on his interpretations of subjects, which made them popular.[84]
The harmonious and expressive nature of Fuzuli's poems, informed by his musical knowledge, makes them suitable for setting to music.[85] Hisghazals continue to be enjoyed inTurkey, including by members ofhigh society and performers in rural areas, where classical Turkish music merges with folk music.[2] The first opera in theIslamic world,Leyli and Majnun, was composed by the Azerbaijani composerUzeyir Hajibeyov in 1908 and based on Fuzuli's work of the same name.[42] The poet'sghazals were also the subject ofFuzuli Cantata, acantata composed by another Azerbaijani composer,Jahangir Jahangirov, in 1959.[86]
^Also spelled in various sources asFuduli,[8]Fozuli,[3] andFizuli.[9]
^Whether Fuzuli was aSunni or a Shia Muslim is a matter of scholarly debate. The historian Derin Terzioğlu states that it is probable that Fuzuli was a Shia Muslim,[12] and according to the scholars of medieval Turkic literature Âmil Çelebioğlu and Hasibe Mazıoğlu, he was a moderate Shia Muslim.[13] On the other hand, the Turkish poet and politicianSüleyman Nazif considered the poet to be a Sunni Muslim.[14]
^According to literary researcher Muhsin Macit, Fuzuli died in Baghdad.[2] However, Abdülkadir Karahan, a scholar of medieval Turkic literature, argues that Karbala is the most likely place of his death.[36]
^Mazıoğlu states that this tradition was fabricated by the Bektashis of Karbala without any supporting evidence. She adds that there is no known connection between Fuzuli and Bektashism.[38]
بر طاغه ایرشدی یولده ناگاه قدینه لباس و هم کوتاه سقفنده عقاب چرخ فانی مضمون کرنده لعل کانی منعم صفتی لباسی فاخر جیب و بغلی طولو جواهر دریا قیلوبن آگا تضرع ایلردی ذخیره سن توقع صحرا ایدوبن آگا تولا ایلردی معیشتن تمنا اول چشمه لر ایلیوب روانه اولمشدی اولاره آته آنه تعظیم ایله قیلمش آنی حق یاد قرآنده که الجبال اوتاد مجنون اگا ایلیوب تماشا بر اودلو سرود قلدی انشا
^While Muhsin Macit and the Turkish literature scholar İskender Pala indicate that the work was completed in 1535,[46] theEncyclopædia Iranica and the literary scholar Salvador Faura state that it was finished in 1536.[47]
^Sources disagree on the exact number ofghazals andrübā'īs in thedīvān. While Mazıoğlu and Karahan state that thedīvān contained 302ghazals, with Mazıoğlu also providing a count of 72rübā'īs,[56] the Turkologist Benedek Péri states that there were 253ghazals and 60rübā'īs.[55]
^Sources disagree on the exact number of couplets in the work. Mazıoğlu writes that it consists of 444 couplets,[60] while Péri estimates it to be around 400 couplets long.[61] The Turkish historian Hatice Aynur states that it is 445 couplets in length,[62] whereas Karahan provides a count of 440.[59]
فضیلت نسب و اصل خارج ذاتست بفضل غیر خود ای سفله افتخار مکن بانتساب سلاطین و خدمت امرا که زایلست مزن تکیه اعتبار مکن بصنعتی که درو هست شرط صحت دست مشو مقید و خود را امیدوار مکن بملک و مال که هستند زایل و ذاهب اساس بنیه امید استوار مکن اگر تراست هوای فضیلت باقی بعلم کوش و ز تحصیل علم عار مکن
^Sources disagree on the exact number ofqaṣīdahs andrübā'īs in thedīvān. While Mazıoğlu states that thedīvān contained 49qaṣīdahs and 105rübā'īs,[65] Karahan provides a count of 46qaṣīdahs and 106rübā'īs.[66]
^The full name of the work isMaṭla' al-I'tiqād fī Ma'rifat al-Mabda' wa-al-Ma'ād, which translates to "The Birth of the Belief in the Knowledge of the Start and the End".[73]
^abUntil the late twentieth century, Fuzuli's birth date was incorrectly considered to be 1495.[29]
^According to Mazıoğlu, there is no known connection between Fuzuli and Bektashism.[38]
^Fazli means "belonging to munificence or abundance", as opposed toFuzuli, which means "superfluous".[81]
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Contemporary Persian and Classical Persian are the same language, but writers since 1900 are classified as contemporary. At one time, Persian was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic world. Today it is the official language ofIran,Tajikistan and one of the two official languages ofAfghanistan.
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