Fugu (河豚;鰒;フグ) inJapanese,bogeo (복어; 鰒魚) orbok (복) inKorean, andhétún (河豚; 河魨) inStandard Modern Chinese[a] refers topufferfish, normally of the genusTakifugu,Lagocephalus, orSphoeroides, or aporcupinefish of the genusDiodon, or a dish prepared from these fish.[citation needed]
Fugu possesses a potentially lethal poison known astetrodotoxin, therefore necessitating meticulous preparation to prevent the fish from being contaminated.[1] Restaurant preparation of fugu is strictly controlled by law inJapan,[2]Korea and several other countries, and only chefs who have qualified after three or more years of rigorous training are allowed to prepare the fish.[1][3] Domestic preparation occasionally leads to accidental death.[3]
Throughout Japan, fugu is served assashimi andnabemono.[3] The liver, widely thought to be the most flavorful part, was traditionally served as a dish namedfugu-kimo, but it is also the most poisonous, and serving this organ in restaurants was banned in Japan in 1984.[3]
In East Asian cuisine, fugu has emerged as a highly renowned delicacy, establishing itself as one of the most celebrated dishes in Japanese and Korean cuisine. Fugu has also been gradually emerging as a prized seafood delicacy in Chinese cuisine.
There are close to 200 species in the family Tetraodontidae (pufferfish), a family of primarily marine and estuarine fish of the orderTetraodontiformes. However, only some of them are eaten and traded as "fugu".
Fugu contains lethal amounts of the poisontetrodotoxin in its organs, especially theliver,ovaries, eyes, and skin.[4] The poison, asodium channel blocker,[5]paralyzes the muscles while the victim stays fully conscious;[6] the poisoned victim is unable to breathe and eventually dies fromasphyxiation.[7] There is no known antidote for fugu poison.[8] The standard treatment is tosupport therespiratory andcirculatory systems until the poison ismetabolized and excreted by the victim's body.[9]
Researchers have determined that a fugu's tetrodotoxin comes from eating other animals infested with tetrodotoxin-ladenbacteria, to which the fish develops insensitivity over time.[10] Whether tetrodotoxin is sequestered from or produced bysymbiotic bacteria is still debated.[11] As such, efforts have been made in research and aquaculture to allow farmers to produce safe fugu. Farmers now produce poison-free fugu by keeping the fish away from the bacteria – see§ Aquaculture below.[10]
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is anatural product that has been isolated not only from pufferfish, but also octopuses, crabs, shellfish, frogs, newts, and other aquatic animals (see below).[12] It is a potentneurotoxin that shuts downelectrical signaling innerves; it acts via interaction with components of thesodium channels in thecell membranes of those cells.[12] Its ability to cross theblood–brain barrier is uncertain.[13] In the case of the pufferfish host, at least (see below), their insusceptibility to the poison is thought to result from cysteine asperagine amino acid substitutions in the sequence of their specific types of sodium channel proteins.[14]
TTX is not produced by pufferfish and the other aquatic animals from which it has been isolated. Rather,bacteria such asAlteromonas,Shewanella, andVibrio species infect or cohabit with the animal species from which TTX is isolated, and a bacterial biosynthetic pathway for its production has been rationalized.[12][15][16]
In animal studies with mice, themedian lethal dose of TTX was found to be 232 μg per kg body weight.[17] Tetrodotoxin levels are affected by preparation (removal of most toxic materials, treatments such as curing and pickling, see below); it is, however, reportedly not significantly affected by cooking.[18]
Despite its toxicity, TTX has clinical therapeutic applications, being evaluated in phase II and IIIclinical trials to be effective for treating cancer-related pain without increasing serious adverse events.[19]
The inhabitants of Japan have eaten fugu for centuries. Fugu bones have been found in severalshell middens, calledkaizuka, from theJōmon period that date back more than 2,300 years. TheTokugawa shogunate (1603–1868) prohibited the consumption of fugu inEdo and its area of influence. It became common again as the power of theShōgunate weakened. In western regions of Japan, where the government's influence was weaker and fugu was easier to obtain, various cooking methods were developed to safely eat them. During theMeiji Era (1867–1912), fugu was again banned in many areas.[20] According to one fugu chef in Tokyo, theEmperor of Japan has never eaten fugu due to an unspecified "centuries old ban".[21]
In China, the use of the pufferfish for culinary purposes was already well-established by theSong dynasty as one of the "three delicacies of the Yangtze" (Chinese:長江三鮮), alongsidesaury andReeve's shad,[22] and appears in the writings of the polymathShen Kuo[23] as well as in the encyclopedic workTaiping Guangji.[24] The scholar-statesmanSu Shi famously remarked that the taste is worthy of death (值那一死).[25]
In 1774James Cook duringhis second voyage, together withJohann Reinhold Forster andGeorg Forster, ate some liver of a fish bartered from a native of an island inNew Caledonia, likely a pufferfish. All three suffered symptoms of poisoning but survived.[26]
Thetorafugu, or tiger pufferfish (Takifugu rubripes), is the most prestigious edible species and the most poisonous. Other species are also eaten; for example,Higanfugu (T. pardalis),Shōsaifugu (T. vermicularis syn.snyderi), andMafugu (T. porphyreus). TheMinistry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan provides a list[27] that shows which species' body parts can be consumed. The list names safegenera includingpufferfish of theLagocephalus andSphoeroides genera and the relatedporcupinefish (Harisenbon) of the familyDiodontidae.
Strict fishing regulations are now in place to protect fugu populations from depletion. Most fugu is now harvested in the spring during thespawning season and then farmed in floating cages in thePacific Ocean. The largest wholesale fugu market in Japan is inShimonoseki.
Fugu prices rise in autumn and peak in winter, the best season, because they fatten to survive the cold. Live fish arrive at a restaurant, surviving in a large tank, usually prominently displayed. Prepared fugu is also often available in grocery stores, which must display official license documents. Whole fish may not be sold to the general public.
Since 1958, fugu chefs must earn a license to prepare and sell fugu to the public. This involves a two- or three-year apprenticeship. The licensing examination process consists of a written test, a fish-identification test, and a practical test, preparing and eating the fish. Only about 35 percent of the applicants pass.[28] Small miscalculations result in failure or, in rare cases, death. Consumers believe that this training process makes it safer to eat fugu in restaurants or markets.[29] Non-poisonous fugu can be produced by keeping the fish away from the bacteria that makes them poisonous.[10]
Since October 2012, restaurants in Japan have been permitted to sell fugu that has been prepared and packaged by a licensed practitioner elsewhere.[30]
TheSaga Prefecture in Japan has petitioned the Food Safety Commission of Japan three times to reconsider its ban on fugu liver, stating that its farmed fugu is non-toxic. The FSCJ has rejected the proposals thrice due to "data insufficient to prove safety".[31][32] NYT reported in 2008 that there is a well-known undergroundfugu-kimo scene in another Japanese town,Usuki, Ōita.[10]
Fugu bones have been found inGimhae and at other archeological sites in coastal villages. During theGoryeo andJoseon dynasties, fugu was widely consumed. The penal law specified prison for the cooks of fugu if a customer died, although standardised qualifications for fugu cooking did not exist.[33][34]
After 1948, theGovernment of Korea restricted the cooking of fugu, and qualifications for who can cook fugu were established. Fugu Chefs must be qualified if they are hired by a restaurant or open their own.[35]
The qualification requires both a written and a practical test. The written portion covers theFugu's poison, hygiene, basic food safety, andconceptions[clarify] ofKorean cuisine. The practical test allows Chefs fifty-six minutes to remove the poisonous parts of fugu and prepareraw fish, bulgogi, and soup. The qualifying score is 60 out of 100.[36]
China began issuing trial permits for serving fugu to restaurants in 2003. In 2016, the Chinese government abolished the permit system and allowed all restaurants to buy and serve farmed fish (without organs), now widely available. By 2019, such restaurants have become commonplace.[37] China also allowed ordinary households to buy processed (organ-removed) whole fish online starting in 2017.[38]
In the case oftorafugu, the most common fugu, the cost is between JP¥1000–JP¥4000 (US$7–29) per kilogram, depending on the season and quality, as of 2022.[39] The expense encourages chefs to slice the fish very carefully to obtain the largest possible amount of meat. A special knife, calledfugu hiki, is usually stored separately from other knives.
In China, packaged farmed fugu cost CN¥330 (US$50) per kilogram as of February 2023[update].[40]
The symptoms of tetrodotoxin poisoning include dizziness, exhaustion, headache, nausea, and difficulty of breathing. The person remains conscious but cannot speak or move. In high doses, breathing stops andasphyxiation follows.[41]
There is no knownantidote, and treatment consists of emptying the stomach, administeringactivated charcoal to bind the toxin, and putting the person onlife support until the poison has worn off.Toxicologists have been working for years on developing an antidote for tetrodotoxin.
Between 1996 and 2006, statistics from the Tokyo Bureau of Social Welfare and Public Health indicate 20–44 annual incidents offugu poisoning in Japan, some affecting multiple diners.[citation needed] Annually, 34–64 people were hospitalized and 0–6 died, with an average fatality rate of 6.8% of those hospitalized.[42] Of the 23 incidents reported in Tokyo from 1993 through 2006, only one took place in a restaurant; all others involved people catching and eating the fish.[42] Poisonings through amateur preparation can result from confusion between types of puffer, as well as improper methods. Some may also represent deliberate suicide attempts;Engelbert Kaempfer, a German physician who resided in Japan in the 1690s, reported that an unusually toxic variety of puffer was sometimes sought out by individuals who wished to take their own lives.[43]
Much higher figures were reported in earlier years, peaking in 1958 when 176 people died from eating fugu in a single year.[28] According to theFugu Research Institute, 50% of the victims were poisoned by eating the liver, 43% from eating the ovaries, and 7% from eating the skin. One of the most famous victims was theKabuki actor and "Living National Treasure"Bandō Mitsugorō VIII, who in 1975 died after eating four servings offugu kimo (fugu liver),[16] the sale of which was prohibited by local ordinances at the time.[44] Bandō claimed to be able to resist the poison,[16] but died several hours after returning to his hotel.[44]
On August 23 2007, a doctor in Thailand reported that unscrupulous fish sellers sold puffer meat disguised as salmon, which caused fifteen deaths over three years. About 115 people were taken to different hospitals. Fugu had been banned in Thailand five years prior to the deaths.[45]
In March 2008, a fisherman in the Philippines died and members of his family became ill from pufferfish. The previous year, four people in the same town died and five others had fallen ill after eating the same variety of pufferfish.[46]
In February 2009, a Malaysian fisherman died and four others were hospitalized after they consumed a meal of pufferfish when they ran out of food while at sea.[47]
In November 2011, a chef of two-Michelin star "Fugu Fukuji" in Tokyo was suspended from his post. The chef served fugu liver to a customer who, despite being warned of the risks, specifically asked that it be provided. The 35-year-old customer subsequently required hospital treatment for mild symptoms of tetrodotoxin paralysis, but made a full recovery.[48]
Five men were poisoned at a restaurant inWakayama in March 2015 after specifically asking for liver.[49][50][51]
In December 2020, 3 people in the Philippines died, while 4 more were hospitalized after eating pufferfish.[52]
In March 2023, an elderly woman and her husband in Malaysia died after consuming pufferfish purchased from a fishmonger.[53]
In January 2024, a Brazilian man, 46, died after eating pufferfish given to him by a friend.[54]
Although not as frequently consumed as in Japan and Korea,[citation needed] fugu is still considered a delicacy and served across restaurants inBeijing. Within the Chinese culinary sphere, fugu is generally prepared as a soup orbraised whole.[37]The fish may also be prepared using traditional Japanese culinary techniques.[citation needed]
In the cuisine ofHakusan, Ishikawa, ovaries are served after reducing the toxin level bysalting andpickling for three years, in a dish named "blowfish ovariespickled in rice-bran paste"(河豚の卵巣の糠漬け, ふぐのらんそうのぬかづけ). The dish is only made in specific regions ofIshikawa Prefecture (Mikawa district, Ono district, Kanaiwa district, andWajima), and only the traditional method is permitted.[57] Non-professionals are warned against attempting the process.[58] After one year of pickling, about 10% of the toxin is suggested to remain,[59] and after the full three years the product is "only sold after having been checked for safety through a toxicity inspection, and other tests."[58]
InKorean cuisine, ediblepufferfish are prepared in various ways includinggui (grilling),jorim (simmering),jjim,Bulgogi,Hoe (raw fish) andguk (soup).
In some villages inNorth Jeolla Province, Fugu eggs are preserved asJeotgal with the supervision by Government of Jeollabuk-do Province.Milt of Fugu is served at restaurant with raw, semi-roasted salad, full roasted, deep fried and stewed. Smoked Fugu fin is dried and dunk in TraditionalSoju orCheongju.
Despite the comparatively lower consumption rate of the fish in comparison to other East Asian nations, the prevalence of fugu restaurants has experienced a significant surge across Chinese urban areas since 2016. The fish is only sold in a processed form (without organs) with a test certificate from the fishery.[37] In 2023, processed raw farmed fugu across China is sold to ordinary customers online.[40]
Most Japanese cities have one or more fugu restaurants, perhaps in clusters because of earlier restrictions, as proximity made it easier when transporting the seafood delicacy so as to preserve its long-term freshness upon being served to potential patrons. A famous restaurant specializing in fugu isTakefuku, in the upscaleGinza district inTokyo withZuboraya being another popular restaurant chain inOsaka that both offer the celebrated seafood delicacy.
The fugu is cleaned of its most toxic parts in Japan and freeze-flown to the United States under license in clearly customized plastic containers. Fugu chefs who cook in American restaurants are trained under the same rigorous and stringent specifications as in Japan. Pufferfish native to American waters, particularly the genusSpheroides, have also been consumed as a seafood delicacy, sometimes resulting in poisoning incidents.[60]
InKorea, fugu is known asbok-eo (복어), the seafood delicacy is very popular in southern port cities such asBusan andChangwon. It is prepared in a number of ways resulting in a variety of dishes ranging from soups, raw fish and salads, all of which command a high price. FuguBulgogi andJorim are popular inDaegu.
Sale of fish belonging to this family (Tetraodontidae) is forbidden altogether in theEuropean Union.[61] InSwitzerland, the importation of fugu is legal, but only as long as it is purchased exclusively for private consumption.[62]
Fugu chefs who cook in American restaurants are trained under the same rigorous and stringent specifications as in Japan. Pufferfish native to American waters, particularly the genusSpheroides, have also been consumed as a seafood delicacy, sometimes resulting in poisoning incidents.[63] Japanese restaurateur Nobuyoshi Kuraoka waged a five-year legal battle with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to allow the exclusive import of the Japanese Tiger puffer into his Manhattan restaurant, with the license finally being granted to him in 1989.[64][65][66] By 2003, only seventeen restaurants in the United States were licensed to serve fugu; fourteen inNew York State, twelve of which are inNew York City.
In theKansai region of Japan, the slang wordteppō, (鉄砲) meaning musket,rifle orgun, is used for the fish. This is a play of words on the verbataru (当たる), which can mean to be poisoned or shot. InShimonoseki region, the ancient pronunciationfuku is more common instead of the modernfugu.[67] The former is also ahomonym forgood fortune whereas the latter is one fordisabled. TheTsukiji fish market fugu association holds a service each year at the height of the fugu season, releasing hundreds of caught fugu into theSumida River. A similar ceremony is also held at another large market in Shimonoseki.
Arakugo, or humorous short story, tells of three men who prepared a fugu stew but were unsure whether it was safe to eat. To test the stew, they gave some to a beggar. When it did not seem to do him any harm, they ate the stew. Later, they met the beggar again and were delighted to see that he was still in good health. After that encounter, the beggar, who had hidden the stew instead of eating it, knew that it was safe and he could eat it. The three men had been fooled by the wise beggar.
Lanterns can be made from the bodies of preserved fugu. These are occasionally seen outside of fugu restaurants, as children's toys, as folk art, or as souvenirs. Fugu skin is also made into everyday objects like wallets or waterproof boxes.
Scientists atNagasaki University have succeeded in culturing non-toxic torafugu by restricting the fish's diet. The experiment included raising over 5,000 fish between the years 2001–2004, and analyzing the toxicity of muscle, skin, gonads, livers, and other organs. The team concluded that the amount of tetrodotoxin in all those parts was non-toxic, and it would allow for the safe preparation offugu-kimo (puffer liver).[68]Usuki, a town inŌita Prefecture, has become known for selling non-poisonous fugu by 2008.[10]
Blowfish, specifically theobscure pufferfish and the torafugu, has been farmed in China since 1993 under the state-owned Tianzheng company. As of 2012[update], most such fish is exported to Japan and South Korea, with a small domestic luxury market that has been operating under license since 2003.[69][37]
The original name of TTX was 'taricatoxin' … TTX selectively interacts with elements of the sodium channel … TTX has been isolated from the puffer fish, newts, frogs, octopuses, crabs, shellfish, and numerous other aquatic animals. The animals do not produce TTX themselves; instead, it is produced by bacteria such as Alteromonas sp., Vibrio sp., and Shewanella sp.
In 1975, the Kabuki actor Bando Mitsugoro VIII ordered four fugu kimo in a restaurant in Kyoto, claiming he could resist the poison. He was wrong.
The only places in Japan where "blowfish ovaries pickled in rice-bran paste " [sic] is made are the Mikawa district of Hakusan City, the Ono and Kanaiwa districts of Kanazawa City, and Wajima City, all in Ishikawa Prefecture. [...] none of the producers can change their method of production. "Blowfish ovaries pickled in rice bran " [sic] is still being made using the same traditional methods as ever.
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