Sextus Julius Frontinus | |
|---|---|
| Born | c. 40 AD |
| Died | 103 (aged 62–63) |
| Occupation(s) | Engineer, author, soldier & politician |
| Notable work | De aquaeductu Strategemata |
| Office | Roman consul |
| Children | 1+ |
Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was aRoman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general underDomitian, commanding forces inRoman Britain, and on theRhine andDanube frontiers. Anovus homo, he wasconsul three times. Frontinus ably discharged several important administrative duties forNerva andTrajan. However, he is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especiallyDe aquaeductu, dealing with theaqueducts of Rome.
Due to a lack of either atitulus honorarius orsepulcralis, there is no outline of Frontinus' life, the names of his parents, or of his wife. Some details can be inferred from chance mentions: He is thought to be ofNarbonese origins, and originally of theequestrian class.[1] From the nomenclature of the name ofPublius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus (consul c. 84), it is likely Frontinus had a sister, who was the other's mother.[2] Frontinus had at least one daughter, the wife ofQuintus Sosius Senecio (cos. 99, II 107) and mother of Sosia Polla.[3]
In AD 70, Frontinus participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, and later recorded that he received the surrender of 70,000Lingones.[4] Between that date and being appointedgovernor ofBritain to succeedQuintus Petillius Cerialis a few years later, Frontinus was appointedsuffect consul. While governor of Britain, he subjugated theSilures of South Wales and is thought to have likewise campaigned against theBrigantes.[5] He was succeeded byGnaeus Julius Agricola, the father-in-law of the famous historianTacitus, in 77. Birley believes it "is fair to speculate" that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription atHieropolis inPhrygia, as well as a number of coins ofSmyrna, attests that he wasproconsul ofAsia in AD 86.[5]
In 97, he was appointedcurator aquarum (supervisor of theaqueducts) by the emperorNerva, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman,Agrippa, the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueductAqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city.
The following year Frontinus held a second consulship as suffect in February, withTrajan as his colleague, and two years later he was madeconsul ordinarius with Trajan. Birley notes, "This exceptional honour underlines the high regard in which he [Frontinus] was held, and suggests, further, that Trajan had a debt to repay."[6] He was also a member of theCollege of Augurs.[6] He died in 103 or 104, a date based onPliny the Younger writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus' death had created.[6]
Frontinus's chief work isDe aquaeductu, in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of theaqueducts of Rome. It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. He provides the history, sizes and discharge rates of all of the nineaqueducts of Rome at the time at which he was writing at the turn of the 1st century AD: theAqua Marcia,Aqua Appia,Aqua Alsietina,Aqua Tepula,Anio Vetus,Anio Novus,Aqua Virgo,Aqua Claudia andAqua Augusta. Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring.
One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance. He says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of the supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen, among many others. They would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a meticulous survey of the intake and the supply of each line, and then investigated the discrepancies.Lead pipe stamps bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent suchwater theft. He was well aware of the seminal workDe architectura byVitruvius, which mentionsaqueduct construction and maintenance published in the previous century; Frontinus refers to the possible influence of Vitruvius on the plumbers.[7]
Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.
He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of thosestatutes.
Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, theStratagems (Latin:Strategemata), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general inGermania underDomitian, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors likeValerius Maximus andLivy suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.[8]One example he gives of control of river water during a siege reads:
Lucius Metellus, when fighting inHither Spain, diverted the course of a river and directed it from a higher level against the camp of the enemy, which was located on low ground. Then, when the enemy were in a panic from the sudden flood, he had them slain by men whom he had stationed in ambush for this very purpose.
He appears as a fictionalised character in theMarcus Didius Falco novelsThe Silver Pigs,Shadows in Bronze,Three Hands in the Fountain, andThe Jupiter Myth. He also appears as a character inThe Centurions novelsBarbarian Princess andThe Emperor's Games.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Frontinus, Sextus Julius".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 250.
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded byas Suffect consuls | Suffect Consul of theRoman Empire 73 withignotus | Succeeded byas Ordinary consuls |
| Preceded by | Suffect Consul of theRoman Empire 98 withTrajan II | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by Tiberius Julius Ferox, as Suffect consulsandignotus | Consul of theRoman Empire 100 withTrajan III, followed byLucius Julius Ursus III | Succeeded byas Suffect consuls |
| Preceded by | Roman governors of Britain 73/4-77 | Succeeded by |
