Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (German:[ˈbɛsl̩]; 22 July 1784 – 17 March 1846) was a Germanastronomer,mathematician,physicist, andgeodesist. He was the first astronomer who determined reliable values for the distance from the Sun to another star by the method ofparallax. Certain important mathematical functions were first studied systematically by Bessel and were namedBessel functions in his honour.[1]
Bessel was born inMinden,Westphalia, then capital of the Prussian administrative regionMinden-Ravensberg, as second son of a civil servant into a large family. At the age of 14 he left the school, because he did not like the education in Latin language, and apprenticed in the import-export concern Kulenkamp atBremen. The business's reliance on cargo ships led him to turn hismathematical skills to problems innavigation. This in turn led to an interest inastronomy as a way of determininglongitude.
Having finished his commercial education, Bessel left Kulenkamp in 1806 and became assistant atJohann Hieronymus Schröter's private observatory inLilienthal near Bremen as successor ofKarl Ludwig Harding. There he worked onJames Bradley's stellar observation data to produce precise positions for some 3,222 stars.[2]
Despite lacking any higher education, especially at university, Bessel was appointed director of the newly foundedKönigsberg Observatory by KingFrederick William III of Prussia in January 1810, at the age of 25, and remained in that position until his death. Some elder professors of the Philosophical Faculty disputed Bessel's right to teach mathematics without any academic degree. Therefore, he turned to his fellowCarl Friedrich Gauss, who provided the award of an honorary doctor degree from theUniversity of Göttingen in March 1811. Both scientists were in correspondence from 1804 to 1843. In 1837 they got in quarrel about Gauss's habit of very slow publication.[3]
Bessel married Johanna Hagen, the daughter of the chemist and pharmacistKarl Gottfried Hagen who was the uncle of the physician and biologistHermann August Hagen and the hydraulic engineerGotthilf Hagen, the latter also Bessel's student and assistant from 1816 to 1818. The physicistFranz Ernst Neumann, Bessel's close companion and colleague, was married to Johanna Hagen's sister Florentine. Neumann introduced Bessel's exacting methods of measurement and data reduction into his mathematico-physical seminar, which he co-directed withCarl Gustav Jacob Jacobi at Königsberg.[5] These exacting methods had a lasting impact upon the work of Neumann's students and upon the Prussian conception of precision in measurement.
Bessel had two sons and three daughters. His elder son became an architect but died suddenly in 1840 aged 26; his younger son died shortly after birth. His eldest daughter, Marie, married the physicistGeorg Adolf Erman, member of the scholar familyErman. One of their sons in turn was the renownedEgyptologistAdolf Erman. His third daughter Johanna married the politicianAdolf Hermann Hagen; one of their sons was the physicistErnst Bessel Hagen, and the mathematicianErich Bessel-Hagen was their grandson. Bessel wasgodfather ofAdolf von Baeyer, son of his collaboratorJohann Jacob Baeyer.
While the observatory was still in construction Bessel elaborated theFundamenta Astronomiae based on Bradley's observations. As a preliminary result he produced tables ofatmospheric refraction that won him theLalande Prize from theFrench Academy of Sciences in 1811. The Königsberg Observatory began operation in 1813.
Bessel determined the first reliable value for thedistance between a star and theSolar System with aheliometer fromFraunhofer using the method ofstellar parallax. In 1838 he published a parallax of 0.314arcseconds for61 Cygni, which indicated that the star is 10.3ly away.[8][9][10] Compared with the current measurement of 11.4 ly, Bessel's figure had an error of 9.6%. Thanks to these results astronomers had not only enlarged the vision of the universe well beyond the cosmic magnitude, but after the discovery in 1728 byJames Bradley of theaberration of light a second empirical evidence of the Earth's relative movement was produced.[11] A short time laterFriedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve andThomas Henderson reported the parallaxes ofVega andAlpha Centauri.
Precise measurements with a newmeridian circle from Adolf Repsold allowed Bessel to notice deviations in the motions ofSirius andProcyon, which must be caused by the gravitational attraction of unseen companions.[12][13]His announcement of Sirius's "dark companion" in 1844 was the first correct claim of a previously unobserved companion by positional measurement, and eventually led to the discovery ofSirius B byAlvan Graham Clark in 1862, the first discovery of awhite dwarf.John Martin Schaeberle discovered Procyon B in 1896.
Bessel was the first scientist who realized the effect later calledpersonal equation, that several simultaneously observing persons determine slightly different values, especially recording the transit time of stars.[14]
In 1824, Bessel developed a new method for calculating the circumstances of eclipses using the so-calledBesselian elements. His method simplified the calculation to such an extent, without sacrificing accuracy, that it is still in use.[15]
Acorrection term in the formula for thesample variance estimator is named in his honour. This is the use of the factorn − 1 in the denominator of the formula, rather than justn. This occurs when thesample mean rather than thepopulation mean is used to centre the data and since the sample mean is a linear combination of the data the residual to the sample mean overcounts the number of degrees of freedom by the number of constraint equations — in this case one.
Bessel's geodetic apparatus, in the museum of Istituto Geografico Militare, Florence, Italy
Like numerous astronomers of his time Bessel dealt on the field ofgeodesy, too,[16]first theoretically, when he published a method for solving the maingeodetic problem.[17]In 1830 he got the royal order for the survey ofEast Prussia with the purpose to connect the yet existing Prussian and Russiantriangulation networks. This work was carried out in cooperation withJohann Jacob Baeyer, then major of the Prussian army; the final report was published in 1838.[18]He also obtained an estimate of increased accuracy for theEarth's ellipsoid, nowadays called theBessel ellipsoid, based on severalarc measurements.[19][20]
Untersuchungen über die scheinbare und wahre Bahn des im Jahre 1807 erschienenen grossen Kometen. [Investigations on the apparent and the real orbit of the great comet of 1807], Königsberg, 1810
Untersuchung der Größe und des Einflusses des Vorrückens der Nachtgleichen. [Investigations on precession], Berlin, 1815
Untersuchungen über die Länge des einfachen Secundenpendels. [Investigations on the length of the seconds pendulum], Berlin, 1828
Versuche über die Kraft mit welcher die Erde Körper von verschiedener Beschaffenheit anzieht. [Experiments on the force with which the Earth attracts things of different matter], Berlin, 1832
Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm; Baeyer, Johann Jacob (1838),Gradmessung in Ostpreußen und ihre Verbindung mit Preußischen und Russischen Dreiecksketten. [The East Prussian Survey and its connection with the Prussian and Russian networks], Berlin,Bibcode:1838goiv.book.....B
Darstellung der Untersuchungen und Maaßregeln, welche, in 1835 bis 1838, durch die Einheit des Preußischen Längenmaaßes veranlaßt worden sind. [Description of the investigations and rules arranged in 1835 to 1838 for the standardization of the Prussian unit of length], Berlin, 1839
Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Königlichen Universitäts-Sternwarte zu Königsberg. [Astronomical Observations (XXI Volumes)], Königsberg, 1815–1844
Heinrich Christian Schumacher, ed. (1848),Populäre Vorlesungen über wissenschaftliche Gegenstände von F.W.Bessel. [Popular lectures on scientific subjects], Hamburg
Rudolf Engelmann (ed.),Abhandlungen von Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. [Treatises of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]
Vol. 1:I. Bewegungen der Körper im Sonnensystem. II. Sphärische Astronomie. Leipzig 1875
Vol. 2:III. Theorie der Instrumente. IV. Stellarastronomie. V. Mathematik. Leipzig 1876
Vol. 3:VI. Geodäsie. VII. Physik. VIII. Verschiedenes – Literatur. Leipzig 1876.
Rudolf Engelmann, ed. (1878),Recensionen von Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, Leipzig: Kessinger Publishing
^Neumann-Redlin von Meding, E. (1996). "Vor 150 Jahren: die Beschreibung der Retroperitonealfibrose, der "Ormond'schen Erkrankung", am Krankheitsbild F.W. Bessels (1784–1846)".Der Urologe B.36 (5):378–382.doi:10.1007/s001310050044.
^Hoffmann, Christoph (2007). "Constant differences: Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, the concept of the observer in early nineteenth-century practical astronomy and the history of the personal equation".British Journal for the History of Science.40 (3):333–365.doi:10.1017/s0007087407009478.S2CID170080943.
^Viik, T. (2006).F.W. Bessel and Geodesy(PDF). Struve Geodetic Arc 2006 International Conference: The Struve Arc and Extensions in Space and Time. 13–15 August 2006. Haparanda and Pajala, Sweden: Lantmäteriet, Gävle, Sweden, 2006. pp. 53–63. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 9 November 2013. Retrieved9 November 2013.
^Bessel, F. W. (1825). "Ueber die Berechnungen der geographischen Länge und Breite aus geodätischen Vermessungen".Astronomische Nachrichten (in German).4 (16):241–254.arXiv:0908.1823.doi:10.1002/asna.18260041601.S2CID118630614.
^Wilhelm Beer, Johann Heinrich Mädler: Der Mond nach seinen kosmischen und individuellen Verhältnissen oder allgemeine vergleichende Selenographie. Berlin 1837, S. 231–232
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