| French art history |
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French art consists of thevisual andplastic arts (includingFrench architecture, woodwork, textiles, and ceramics) originating from the geographical area ofFrance. Modern France was the main centre for the Europeanart of the Upper Paleolithic,[citation needed] then left manymegalithic monuments, and in theIron Age many of the most impressive finds of earlyCeltic art. TheGallo-Roman period left a distinctive provincial style of sculpture, and the region around the modern Franco-German border led the empire in the mass production of finely decoratedAncient Roman pottery, which was exported to Italy and elsewhere on a large scale. WithMerovingian art the story of French styles as a distinct and influential element in the wider development of the art of Christian Europe begins.
Romanesque and Gothic architecture flourished in medieval France with Gothic architecture originating from the Île-de-France and Picardy regions of northern France.[1][2] During theRenaissance led to Italy becoming the main source of stylistic developments until France matched Italy's influence during theRococo andNeoclassicism periods[citation needed] During the 19th century and up to mid-20 century France and especially Paris was considered the center of the art world with art styles such asImpressionism,Post-Impressionism,Cubism,Fauvism originating there as well as movements and congregations of foreign artists such as theÉcole de Paris.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Currently, the earliest known European art is from theUpper Palaeolithic period of between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago and France has a large selection of extantpre-historic art from theChâtelperronian,Aurignacian,Solutrean,Gravettian, andMagdalenian cultures. This art includescave paintings, such as the famous paintings atPech Merle in theLot inLanguedoc which date back to 16,000 BC,Lascaux, located near the village ofMontignac, in theDordogne, dating back to between 13,000 and 15,000 BC, or perhaps, as far back as 25,000 BC, theCosquer Cave, theChauvet Cave dating back to 29,000 BC, and theTrois-Frères cave; andportable art, such as animal carvings and great goddess statuettes calledVenus figurines, such as the "Venus of Brassempouy" of 21,000 BC, discovered in theLandes, now in the museum at theChâteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye or theVenus of Lespugue at theMusée de l'Homme. Ornamental beads, bone pins, carvings, as well as flint and stonearrowheads also are among the prehistoric objects from the area of France.
Speculations exist that onlyHomo sapiens are capable of artistic expression, however, a recent find, theMask of la Roche-Cotard—aMousterian orNeanderthal artifact, found in 2002 in a cave near the banks of theLoire River, dating back to about33,000 B.C.—now suggests that Neanderthal humans may have developed a sophisticated and complex artistic tradition.
In theNeolithic period (seeNeolithic Europe),megalithic (large stone) monuments, such as thedolmens andmenhirs atCarnac,Saint-Sulpice-de-Faleyrens and elsewhere in France begin to appear; this appearance is thought to start in the fifth millennium BC, although some authors speculate aboutMesolithic roots. In France there are some 5,000 megalithics monuments, mainly in Brittany, where there is the largest concentration of these monuments. In this area there is a wide variety of these monuments that have been well preserved, such as menhirs, dolmen, cromlechs and cairns. TheCairn of Gavrinis in southern Brittany is an outstanding example of megalithic art : its 14 meters inner corridor is nearly completely adorned with ornamental carvings. Thegreat broken menhir of Er-Grah, now in four pieces was more than 20 meters high originally, making it the largest menhir ever erected. France has also numerous painted stones, polished stone axes, and inscribed menhirs from this period. The Grand-Pressigny area was known for its precious silex blades and they were extensively exported during the Neolithic.
In France from the Neolithic to theBronze Age, one finds a variety of archaeological cultures, including theRössen culture ofc. 4500–4000 BC,Beaker culture ofc. 2800–1900 BC,Tumulus culture ofc. 1600–1200 BC,Urnfield culture ofc. 1300–800 BC, and, in a transition to theIron Age,Hallstatt culture ofc. 1200–500 BC.
For more on Prehistoric sites in Western France,seePrehistory of Brittany.
From theProto-Celtic Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures, a continentalIron AgeCeltic art developed; mainly associated withLa Tène culture, which flourished during the late Iron Age from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the first century BC. This art drew on native, classical and perhaps, theMediterranean, oriental sources. The Celts ofGaul are known through numerous tombs and burial mounds found throughout France.
Celtic art is very ornamental, avoiding straight lines and only occasionally using symmetry, without the imitation of nature nor ideal of beauty central to theclassical tradition, but apparently, often involves complex symbolism. This artwork includes a variety of styles and often incorporates subtly modified elements from other cultures, an example being the characteristic over-and-under interlacing which arrived in France only in the sixth century, although it was already used byGermanic artists. The CelticVix grave in present-day Burgundy revealed the largest bronze crater of the Antiquity, that was probably imported by Celtic aristocrats from Greece.
The region of Gaul (Latin:Gallia) came under the rule of theRoman Empire from the first century BC to the fifth century AD. Southern France, and especially Provence and Languedoc, is known for its many intact Gallo-Roman monuments.Lugdunum, modern Lyon, was at the time of the Roman Empire the largest city outside Italy and gave birth to two Roman Emperors. The city still boasts some Roman remains including a Theater. Monumental works from this period include theamphitheater inOrange, Vaucluse, the "Maison Carrée" atNîmes which is one of the best preserved Roman temples in Europe, the city ofVienne near Lyon, which features an exceptionally well preserved temple (the temple of Augustus and Livia), a circus as well as other remains, thePont du Gardaqueduct which is also in an exceptional state of preservation, the Roman cities ofGlanum andVaison-la-Romaine, two intact Gallo-Roman arenas inNîmes andArles, and theRoman baths, and thearena ofParis.
Merovingian art is the art and architecture of theMerovingian dynasty of theFranks, which lasted from the fifth century to the eighth century in present-day France andGermany. The advent of the Merovingian dynasty inGaul during the fifth century led to important changes in the arts. In architecture, there was no longer the desire to build robust and harmonious buildings. Sculpture regressed to being little more than a simple technique for the ornamentation ofsarcophagi,altars, and ecclesiastical furniture. On the other hand, the rise ofgold work andmanuscript illumination brought about a resurgence ofCeltic decoration, which, withChristian and other contributions, constitutes the basis of Merovingian art. The unification of theFrankish kingdom underClovis I (465–511) and his successors, corresponded with the need to build churches. The plans for them probably were copied fromRomanbasilicas. Unfortunately, these timber structures have not survived because of destruction by fire, whether accidental or caused by theNormans at the time of their incursions.
Carolingian art is the approximate 120-year period from 750 to 900—during the reign ofCharles Martel,Pippin the Younger,Charlemagne, and his immediate heirs—popularly known as theCarolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian era is the first period of the medieval art movement known asPre-Romanesque. For the first time, Northern European kings patronized classical Mediterranean Roman art forms, blending classical forms with Germanic ones, creating entirely new innovations in figurine line drawing, and setting the stage for the rise ofRomanesque art and, eventually,Gothic art in the West.
Illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, small-scale sculpture, mosaics, and frescos survive from the period. The Carolingians also undertook major architectural building campaigns at numerous churches in France. These include, those ofMetz,Lyon,Vienne,Le Mans,Reims,Beauvais,Verdun,Saint-Germain in Auxerre, Saint-Pierre inFlavigny, andSaint-Denis, as well as the town center ofChartres. TheCentula Abbey ofSaint-Riquier (Somme), completed in 788, was a major achievement in monastic architecture. Another important building (mostly lost today) was "Theodulf's Villa" inGermigny-des-Prés.
With the end of Carolingian rule around 900, artistic production halted for almost three generations. After the demise of the Carolingian Empire, France split into a number of feuding provinces, lacking any organized patronage. French art of the tenth and eleventh centuries was produced by local monasteries to promote literacy and piety, however, the primitive styles produced were not so highly skilled as the techniques of the earlier Carolingian period.
Multiple regional styles developed based on the chance availability of Carolingian manuscripts as models to copy, and the availability of itinerant artists. The monastery of Saint Bertin became an important center under its abbot Odbert (986–1007), who created a new style based on Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian forms. The nearbyabbey of St. Vaast (Pas-de-Calais) also created a number of important works. In southwestern France a number of manuscripts were produced c. 1000, at the monastery ofSaint Martial inLimoges, as well as atAlbi,Figeac, andSaint-Sever-de-Rustan inGascony. In Paris a unique style developed at theabbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés. InNormandy a new style arose in 975. By the later tenth century with theCluny reform movement and a revived spirit for the concept of Empire, art production resumed.
Romanesque art refers to the art of Western Europe during a period of one hundred and fifty years, from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of theGothic style, which arose in the middle of the twelfth century in France. "Romanesque Art" was marked by a renewed interest in Roman construction techniques. For example, the twelfth-century capitals on the cloister ofSaint-Guilhem-le-Désert, adopt anacanthus-leafmotif and the decorative use of drill holes, which were commonly found on Roman monuments. Other important Romanesque buildings in France include the abbey ofSaint-Benoît-sur-Loire inLoiret, the churches ofSaint-Foy inConques ofAveyron, Saint-Martin inTours, Saint-Philibert inTournus ofSaône-et-Loire,Saint-Remi inReims, andSaint-Sernin inToulouse. In particular,Normandy experienced a large building campaign in the churches ofBernay,Mont-Saint-Michel,Coutances Cathedral, andBayeux.
Most Romanesque sculpture was integrated into church architecture, not only for aesthetic, but also for structural purposes. Small-scale sculpture during the pre-Romanesque period was influenced byByzantine andEarly Christian sculpture. Other elements were adopted from various local styles of Middle Eastern countries. Motifs were derived from the arts of the "barbarian," such as grotesque figures, beasts, and geometric patterns, which were all important additions, particularly in the regions north of the Alps. Among the important sculptural works of the period are the ivory carvings at the monastery ofSaint Gall. Monumental sculpture was rarely practised separately from architecture in the Pre-Romanesque period. For the first time after the fall of the Roman empire, monumental sculpture emerged as a significant art form. Covered churchfaçades, doorways, andcapitals all increased and expanded in size and importance, as in theLast JudgmentTympanum,Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne, and the Standing Prophet atMoissac. Monumental doors, baptismal fonts, and candle holders, frequently decorated with scenes from biblical history, were cast in bronze, attesting to the skills of the contemporary metalworkers. Frescoes were applied to the vaults and walls of churches. Rich textiles and precious objects in gold and silver, such as chalices and reliquaries, were produced in increasing numbers to meet the needs of the liturgy, and to serve the cult of the saints. In the twelfth century, large-scale stone sculpture spread throughout Europe. In the French Romanesque churches ofProvence,Burgundy, andAquitaine, sculptures adorned the façades and statues were incorporated into the capitals.
Gothic art and architecture were products of a medieval art movement that lasted about three hundred years. It began in France, developing from the Romanesque period in the mid-twelfth century. By the late fourteenth century, it had evolved toward a more secular and natural style known as,International Gothic, which continued until the late fifteenth century, when it evolved further, intoRenaissance art. The primary Gothic art media weresculpture,panel painting,stained glass,fresco, andilluminated manuscript.
Gothic architecture was born in the middle of the twelfth century inÎle-de-France, whenAbbot Suger built the abbey atSt. Denis,c. 1140, considered the first Gothic building, and soon afterward, theChartres Cathedral,c. 1145. Prior to this, there had been no sculpture tradition in Île-de-France—so sculptors were brought in fromBurgundy, who created the revolutionary figures acting as columns in the Western (Royal) Portal of Chartres Cathedral (see image) —it was an entirely new invention in French art, and would provide the model for a generation of sculptors. Other notable Gothic churches in France includeBourges Cathedral,Amiens Cathedral,Notre-Dame de Laon,Notre-Dame inParis,Reims Cathedral, theSainte-Chapelle inParis,Strasbourg Cathedral.
The designations of styles in French Gothic architecture are as follows: Early Gothic, High Gothic,Rayonnant, and Late Gothic orFlamboyant. Division into these divisions is effective, but debatable. Because Gothic cathedrals were built over several successive periods, and the artisans of each period not necessarily following the wishes of previous periods, the dominant architectural style often changed during the building of a particular building. Consequently, it is difficult to declare one building as belonging to certain era of Gothic architecture. It is more useful to use the terms as descriptors for specific elements within a structure, rather than applying it to the building as a whole.
The French ideas spread. Gothic sculpture evolved from the early stiff and elongated style, still partly Romanesque, into a spatial and naturalistic treatment in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century. Influences from surviving ancient Greek and Roman sculptures were incorporated into the treatment of drapery, facial expression, and pose of the Dutch-Burgundian sculptor,Claus Sluter, and the taste for naturalism first signaled the end of Gothic sculpture, evolving into the classicistic Renaissance style by the end of the fifteenth century.
Paris, at the time, the largest city in theWestern world, became a leading center for the production of luxurious artifacts in the 13th and 14th century, especially little ivory sculptures and ivorycaskets with scenes ofcourtly love (such asCasket with Scenes of Romances in theWalters Art Museum). Paris also developed into one of the most exuberant centers for the production of jewellery and precious reliquaries, such as theHoly Thorn Reliquary made forJean, duke of Berry or theGoldenes Rössl ofAltötting, made forCharles VI, king of France.
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Painting in a style that may be called "Gothic" did not appear until about 1200, nearly fifty years after the start of Gothic architecture and sculpture. The transition from Romanesque to Gothic is very imprecise and by no means clearly delineated, but one may see the beginning of a style that is more somber, dark, and emotional than the previous period. This transition occurs first in England and France around 1200, in Germany around 1220, and in Italy around 1300. Painting, the representation of images on a surface, was practiced during the Gothic period in four primary crafts,frescos,panel paintings,manuscript illumination, andstained glass. Frescoes continued to be used as the main pictorial narrative craft on church walls in southern Europe as a continuation of early Christian and Romanesque traditions. In the north, stained glass and manuscript illumination remained the dominant art form until the fifteenth century.
At the end of the 14th century and during the 15th century French princely courts such as those of the dukes of Burgundy, the duke of Anjou or the duke of Berry as well as the pope and the cardinals in Avignon employed renowned painters, such as theLimbourg Brothers,Barthélemy d'Eyck,Enguerrand Quarton,Jean Fouquet orNicolas Froment who developed the so-calledInternational Gothic style that spread through Europe and incorporated the new Flemish influence as well as the innovations of the Italian early Renaissance artists.Northern France was also the main European center forilluminated manuscripts production. Illuminated manuscripts represent the most complete record of Gothic painting, providing a record of styles in places where no monumental works have otherwise survived.
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The earliest full manuscripts with French Gothic illustrations date to the middle of the 13th century.[9] Many such illuminated manuscripts were royal bibles, althoughpsalters also included illustrations; the ParisianPsalter of Saint Louis, dating from 1253 to 1270, features 78 full-page illuminations intempera paint and gold leaf.[10]
Iluluminated manuscripts flourished especially in the 15th century, thanks to the many ducals courts that rose to power in France at the time. In the 15th century, these precious painted books were usually made by Flemish painters from theBurgundian Netherlands (then under the French rule of the dukes of Burgundy) or French painters in the service of the main princely courts (the king's court in Paris, but also the ducal courts of Burgundy, Anjou, Berry, Bourbon, Orléans and Brittany). The king of Sicily and duke of Anjou,René was himself a writer of courtly love novels and asked the best artists to decorate his own writings with elaborate paintings, such as theLivre du cœur d'Amour épris illuminated by Barthélémy d'Eyck. The Limbourg brothers were responsible for theTrès riches heures du duc de Berry, considered the masterpiece of International gothic manuscripts, made for the Duke of Berry, kingCharles V's brother.
In the late fifteenth century, the Frenchinvasion of Italy and the proximity of the vibrantBurgundy court, with its Flemish connections, brought the French into contact with the goods, paintings, and the creative spirit of theNorthern andItalian Renaissance. Initial artistic changes at that time in France were executed by Italian and Flemish artists, such asJean Clouet and his sonFrançois Clouet, along with the Italians,Rosso Fiorentino,Francesco Primaticcio, andNiccolò dell'Abbate of what is often called the firstSchool of Fontainebleau from 1531.Leonardo da Vinci also was invited to France by François I, but other than the paintings which he brought with him, he produced little for the French king.
The art of the period from François I through Henri IV often is heavily inspired by late Italian pictorial and sculptural developments commonly referred to asMannerism, which is associated with the later works ofMichelangelo as well asParmigianino, among others. It is characterized by figures which are elongated and graceful that rely upon visualrhetoric, including the elaborate use ofallegory andmythology. Perhaps the greatest accomplishment of the French Renaissance was the construction of theChâteaux of the Loire Valley. No longer conceived of as fortresses, such pleasure palaces took advantage of the richness of the rivers and lands of the Loire region and they show remarkable architectural skill.
Some important French architects who adopted the Renaissance style arePierre Lescot, who rebuilt a part of theLouvre palace for the king,Philibert Delorme,Jean Bullant andJacques I Androuet du Cerceau.
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Sculpture had a great development in France during the Renaissance and has been better preserved than painting. ThoughFrancesco Laurana worked in France for a shorte period of time in the late 15th century, it is only in the beginning of the 16th century that the Italian style became prevalent in France, after theItalian Wars started. In sculpture, the arrival of theGiusto family, who followedLouis XII in France in1504 was instrumental. Later, another major Italian sculptor who was employed at the court wasBenvenuto Cellini, who worked for François Ier from1540, and imported the Mannerist style to France (one example being theNymph of Fontainebleau). Major French sculptors or the time areMichel Colombe, responsible for theTomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany in Nantes, who had the opportunity to work along the Giusto brothers. Along with Colombe,Jean Goujon andGermain Pilon are considered the best French sculptors of the period, working in an elaborate Mannerist style. Another important figure of the time isPierre Bontemps. The Champagne region aroundTroyes but also the Loire valley and Normandy were important regional centres for sculpture. In theDuchy of Lorraine and Bar, a regional but very talented figure appeared in the person ofLigier Richier.
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The seventeenth century marked a golden age for French art in all fields.In the early part of the seventeenth century, latemannerist and earlyBaroque tendencies continued to flourish in the court ofMarie de Medici andLouis XIII.Art from this period shows influences from both the north of Europe, namely the Dutch and Flemish schools, and from Roman painters of theCounter-Reformation. Artists in France frequently debated the contrasting merits ofPeter Paul Rubens with his Flemish baroque, voluptuous lines and colors toNicolas Poussin with his rational control, proportion, Roman classicist baroque style. Another proponent of classicism working in Rome wasClaude Gellée, known as Le Lorrain, who defined the form of classical landscape.
Many young French painters of the beginning of the century went to Rome to train themselves and soon assimilatedCaravaggio's influence, for exampleValentin de Boulogne andSimon Vouet. The later is credited with bringing the baroque in France and at his return in Paris in 1627 he was named first painter of the king. But French painting soon departed from the extravagance and naturalism of Italian baroque, and painters such asEustache Le Sueur andLaurent de La Hyre, following Poussin's example, developed a classicist way known asParisian Atticism, inspired by Antiquity, and focusing on proportion, harmony and the importance of drawing. Even Vouet, after his return from Italy, changed his manner to a more measured but still highly decorative and elegant style.
But at the same time there was still a strongCaravaggisti Baroque school represented in the period by the amazing candle-lit paintings ofGeorges de La Tour. The wretched and the poor were featured in aquasi-Dutch manner in the paintings by the threeLe Nain brothers. In the paintings ofPhilippe de Champaigne there are both propagandistic portraits ofLouis XIII' s ministerCardinal Richelieu and other more contemplative portraits of people in the CatholicJansenist sect.
In architecture, architects such asSalomon de Brosse,François Mansart andJacques Lemercier helped define the French form of the baroque, developing the formula of the urbanhôtel particulier that was to influence all of Europe and strongly departed from the Italian equivalent, thepalazzo. Many aristocratic castles were rebuilt in the new classic-baroque style, some of the most famous beingMaisons andCheverny, characterized by high roofs"à la française" and a form that retained the medieval model of the castle adorned with prominent towers.
From the mid to late seventeenth century, French art is more often referred to by the term "Classicism" which implies an adherence to certain rules of proportion and sobriety uncharacteristic of the Baroque, as it was practiced in most of the rest of Europe during the same period. UnderLouis XIV, the Baroque as it was practiced in Italy, was not in French taste, for instance, asBernini's famous proposal for redesigning the Louvre was rejected by Louis XIV.
Throughpropaganda, wars, and great architectural works,Louis XIV launched a vast program designed for the glorification of France and his name. ThePalace of Versailles, initially a tiny hunting lodge built by his father, was transformed by Louis XIV into a marvelous palace for fêtes and parties, under the direction of architectsLouis Le Vau (who had also built thechâteau de Vaux-le-Vicomte) andJules Hardouin Mansart (who built thechurch of the Invalides in Paris), painter and designerCharles Le Brun, and the landscape architectAndré Le Nôtre who perfected the rational form of theFrench garden that from Versailles spread in all of Europe. In portrait painting, two figures emerged in the 1680s with the portraitistsHyacinthe Rigaud andNicolas de Largillière, whose theatrical yet psychologically refined portraits set a new model for the 18th century.
Sculpture moved away from late Mannerism to a more sophisticated, classical yet grand style in the 1630s thanks to the likes ofJacques Sarazin,Simon Guillain and theAnguier brothers. For sculpture, Louis XIV's reign also proved an important moment thanks to the King's protection of artists such asPierre Puget,François Girardon,Antoine Coysevox andNicolas Coustou who all produced sculptures for the gardens of Versailles and thenMarly, where ambitious decorative programs involved tens of sculptors. In Rome,Pierre Legros the Younger, working in a more baroque manner, was one of the most influential sculptors of the end of the century alongsidePierre-Étienne Monnot.
In the decorative arts, France pursued a state-impulsed politc favourising new state-owned or supervised factories to rivalize with Italian, Flemish and Dutch productions:Nevers andRouen faience factories, though private, were first granted royal monopolies in1603 and1647 respectively. They produced fine earthenware inspired from Italian and Asiatic styles and under Louis XIV worked extensively for the French crown. TheGobelins Manufactory in Paris, founded in1601 with the support ofHenry IV, was purchased by ministerJean-Baptiste Colbert on behalf of the French crown in1662 and reorganized. It soon produced the most refined tapestries of Europe, while France also became the foremost European center for cabinetmaking and furniture production thanks to theébénistesAndré-Charles Boulle (who invented theBoulle work style of furinturemaking, an inlay of tortoiseshell, brass and pewter into ebony) andPierre Gole, who helped establish the fashionableLouis XIV style.
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Rococo andNeoclassicism are terms used to describe the visual and plastic arts and architecture in Europe from the early eighteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century. In France, the death ofLouis XIV in 1715 lead to a period of freedom commonly called theRégence. Versailles was abandoned from 1715 to 1722, the young king Louis XV and the government led by theduke of Orléans residing in Paris. There a new style emerged in the decorative arts, known asrocaille : the asymmetry and dynamism of the baroque was kept but renewed in a style that is less rhetoric and with less pompous effects, a deeper research of artificiality and use of motifs inspired by nature. This manner used to decorate rooms and furniture also existed in painting. Rocaillle painting turned toward lighter subjects, such as the "fêtes galantes", theater settings, pleasant mythological narratives and the female nude. Most of the time the moralising sides of myths or history paintings are omitted and the accent is put on the decorative and pleasant aspect of the scenes depicted. Paintings from the period show an emphasis more on color than drawing, with apparent brush strokes and very colorful scenes. Important French painters from this period includeAntoine Watteau, considered the inventor of thefête galante,Nicolas Lancret andFrançois Boucher, known for his gentle pastoral and galant scenes, andJean-Marc Nattier, admired for its graceful and charming oil portraits of ladies at Louis XV's court.Pastel portrait painting became particularly fashionable in Europe at the time and France was the major center of activity for pastellists, with the prominent figures ofMaurice Quentin de La Tour,Jean-Baptiste Perronneau and the SwissJean-Étienne Liotard. Other important artists in the genre of history painting during the first half of the century wereFrançois Lemoyne (who painted the vault of theSalon d'Hercule in the palace of Versailles),Jean-François de Troy,Carle Van Loo andCharles-Joseph Natoire.
TheLouis XV style of decoration, although already apparent at the end of the last reign, was lighter with pastel colors, wood panels, smaller rooms, less gilding, and fewer brocades; shells, garlands, and occasional Chinese subjects predominated. TheChantilly,Vincennes and thenSèvres manufactures produced some of the finest porcelain of the time. The highly skilledébénistes, cabinet-makers mostly based in Paris, created elaborate pieces of furniture with precious wood and bronze ornaments that were to be highly praised and imitated in all of Europe. The most famous areJean-François Oeben, who created the work desk of king Louis XV in Versailles,Bernard II van Risamburgh andJean-Henri Riesener. Highly skilled artists, called theciseleur-doreurs, specialized in bronze ornaments for furniture and other pieces of decorative arts - the most famous beingPierre Gouthière andPierre-Philippe Thomire. Talented silversmiths such asThomas Germain and his sonFrançois-Thomas Germain created elaborate silverware services that were highly praised by the various royalties of Europe. Rooms inchâteaux andhôtels particuliers were more intimate than during the reign of Louis XIV and were decorated with rocaille styleboiseries (carved wood panels covering the walls of a room) conceived by architects such asGermain Boffrand andGilles-Marie Oppenord orornemanistes (designers of decorative objects) such asJuste-Aurèle Meissonnier.
The most prominent architects of the first half of the century were, apart Boffrand,Robert de Cotte andAnge-Jacques Gabriel, who designed public squares such as theplace de la Concorde in Paris and theplace de la Bourse inBordeaux in a style consciously inspired by that of the era of Louis XIV. During the first half of the century, France replaced Italy as the artistic centre and main artistic influence in Europe and many French artists worked in other courts across the continent (like the paintersPierre Subleyras for popeBenedict XIV in Rome,Antoine Pesne for the king of Prussia in Berlin,Jean Ranc andLouis-Michel van Loo for the king of Spain in Madrid or the sculptorÉtienne Maurice Falconet forCatherine the Great in Saint Petersburg).
The most prominent sculptors of the first half of the century were theGuillaume Coustou the Younger and his brother,Guillaume Coustou the Elder,Robert Le Lorrain andEdmé Bouchardon, a precursor of neoclassicism. In the second half the portraitistJean-Baptiste Lemoyne,Jean-Baptiste Pigalle,Étienne Maurice Falconet andClodion, known for his delicate terracotta reliefs, were the leading French sculptors. In the later part of the reign of Louis XV, sculptors began to give greater attention to the faces; the leaders of this new style wereJean-Antoine Houdon noted for his busts of celebrated authors and statesmen, andAugustin Pajou.
The latter half of the eighteenth century continued to see French preeminence in Europe, particularly through the arts and sciences, and the speaking theFrench language was expected for members of the European courts. The French academic system continued to produce artists, but some, such asJean-Honoré Fragonard andJean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, explored new and increasingly impressionist styles of painting with thick brushwork. Although the hierarchy of genres continued to be respected officially,genre painting,landscape,portrait, andstill life were extremely fashionable. Chardin andJean-Baptiste Oudry were hailed for their still lifes although this was officially considered the lowest of all genres in the hierarchy of painting subjects.
One also finds in this period aPre-romanticist aspect.Hubert Robert's images of ruins, inspired by Italiancapriccio paintings, are typical in this respect as well as the image of storms and moonlight marines byClaude Joseph Vernet. So too the change from the rational and geometricalFrench garden ofAndré Le Nôtre to theEnglish garden, which emphasized artificially wild and irrational nature. One also finds in some of these gardens—curious ruins of temples—called "follies".
The last half of the eighteenth century saw a turn toNeoclassicism in France, that is to say a conscious use of Greek and Roman forms andiconography. This movement was promoted by intellectuals such as Diderot, in reaction to the artificiality and the decorative essence of therocaille style. In painting, the greatest representative of this style isJacques-Louis David, who, mirroring the profiles of Greek vases, emphasized the use of the profile. His subject matter often involved classical history such as the death of Socrates and Brutus. The dignity and subject matter of his paintings were greatly inspired by the works ofNicolas Poussin from the seventeenth century. Poussin and David were in turn major influences onJean Auguste Dominique Ingres. Other important neoclassical painters of the period areJean-Baptiste Greuze,Joseph-Marie Vien and, in the portrait genre,Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun. Neoclassicism also penetrated decorative arts and architecture.
Architects such asLedoux andBoullée developed a radical style of neoclassical architecture based on simple and pure geometrical forms with a research of symmetry and harmony, elaborating visionary projects, for example the complex of theSaltworks of Arc-et-Senans by Ledoux, a model of an ideal factory developed from the rational concepts of theEnlightment thinkers.
TheFrench Revolution and theNapoleonic wars brought great changes to the arts in France. The program of exaltation and myth making attendant to the EmperorNapoleon I of France was closely coordinated in the paintings of David, Gros and Guérin.Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was the main figure of neoclassicism until the 1850s and a prominent teacher, giving priority to drawing over color. Meanwhile,Orientalism, Egyptian motifs, the tragicanti-hero, the wild landscape, thehistorical novel, and scenes from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance—all these elements ofRomanticism—created a vibrant period that defies easy classification. The most important romantic painter of the period was Eugène Delacroix, who had a successful public career and was the main opponent of Ingres. Before him,Théodore Géricault opened the path to romanticism with his monumentalRaft of the Medusa exposed at theSalon of 1819.Camille Corot tried to escape the conventional and idealized form of landscape painting influenced by classicism to be more realist and sensible to atmospheric variations at the same time.
Romantic tendencies continued throughout the century, both idealized landscape painting andRealism have their seeds in Romanticism. The work ofGustave Courbet and theBarbizon school are logical developments from it, as is the late nineteenth centurySymbolism of such painters asGustave Moreau, the professor ofHenri Matisse andGeorges Rouault, as well asOdilon Redon.
Academic painting developed at theEcole des Beaux-Arts was the most successful with the public and the state: highly trained painters such asJean-Léon Gérôme,William Bouguereau andAlexandre Cabanel painted historical scenes inspired by the antique, following the footsteps of Ingres and the neoclassics. Though criticized for their conventionalism by the young avant-garde painters and critics, the most talented of the Academic painters renewed the historical genre, drawing inspiration from multiple cultures and techniques such as the Orient, and the new framings made possible by the invention of photography
For many criticsÉdouard Manet wrote of the nineteenth century and the modern period (much asCharles Baudelaire does in poetry). His rediscovery of Spanish painting from the golden age, his willingness to show the unpainted canvas, his exploration of the forthright nude, and his radical brush strokes are the first steps toward Impressionism.Impressionism would take theBarbizon school one step farther, rejecting once and for all a belabored style and the use of mixed colors and black, for fragile transitive effects of light as captured outdoors in changing light (partly inspired by the paintings ofJ. M. W. Turner andEugène Boudin). It led toClaude Monet with his cathedrals and haystacks,Pierre-Auguste Renoir with both his early outdoor festivals and his later feathery style of ruddy nudes, andEdgar Degas with his dancers and bathers. Other important impressionists wereAlfred Sisley,Camille Pissarro andGustave Caillebotte.
After that threshold was crossed, the next thirty years became a litany of amazing experiments.Vincent van Gogh, Dutch born, but living in France, opened the road toexpressionism.Georges Seurat, influenced by color theory, devised apointillist technique that governed the Impressionist experiment and was followed byPaul Signac.Paul Cézanne, a painter's painter, attempted a geometrical exploration of the world, that left many of his peers indifferent.Paul Gauguin, a banker, found symbolism inBrittany along withÉmile Bernard, and then exoticism and primitivism inFrench Polynesia. These painters were referred to asPost-Impressionists.Les Nabis, a movement of the 1890s, including painters such asPaul Sérusier,Pierre Bonnard,Édouard Vuillard andMaurice Denis, was influenced by Gauguin's example in Brittany: they explored a decorative art in flat plains with the graphic approach of a Japanese print. They preached that a work of art is the end product and the visual expression of an artist's synthesis of nature in personal aesthetic metaphors and symbols.Henri Rousseau, the self-taught dabbling postmaster, became the model for the naïve revolution.
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The early years of the twentieth century were dominated by experiments in colour and content thatImpressionism andPost-Impressionism had unleashed. The products of the far east also brought new influences. At roughly the same time,Les Fauves (Henri Matisse,André Derain,Maurice de Vlaminck,Albert Marquet,Raoul Dufy,Othon Friesz,Charles Camoin,Henri Manguin) exploded into color, much like GermanExpressionism.
The discovery of African tribal masks byPablo Picasso, a Spaniard living in Paris, lead him to create hisLes Demoiselles d'Avignon of 1907. Working independently, Picasso andGeorges Braque returned to and refined Cézanne's way of rationally comprehension of objects in a flat medium, their experiments incubism also would lead them to integrate all aspects and objects of day-to-day life,collage of newspapers, musical instruments, cigarettes, wine, and other objects into their works.Cubism in all its phases would dominate paintings of Europe and America for the next ten years. (See the article onCubism for a complete discussion.)
World War I did not stop the dynamic creation of art in France. In 1916 a group of discontents met in a bar in Zurich, theCabaret Voltaire, and created the most radical gesture possible, the anti-art ofDada. At the same time,Francis Picabia andMarcel Duchamp were exploring similar notions. At a 1917 art show inNew York, Duchamp presented a white porcelain urinal (Fountain) signedR. Mutt as work of art, becoming the father of thereadymade.
WhenDada reached Paris, it was avidly embraced by a group of young artists and writers who were fascinated with the writings ofSigmund Freud, particularly by his notion of theunconscious mind. The provocative spirit of Dada became linked to the exploration of the unconscious mind through the use ofautomatic writing, chance operations, and, in some cases, altered states. Thesurrealists quickly turned to painting and sculpture. The shock of unexpected elements, the use ofFrottage,collage, anddecalcomania, the rendering of mysterious landscapes and dreamed images were to become the key techniques through the rest of the 1930s.
Immediately after this war the French art scene diverged roughly in two directions. There were those who continued in the artistic experiments from before the war, especially surrealism, and others who adopted the newAbstract Expressionism andaction painting from New York, executing them in a French manner usingTachism orL'art informel. Parallel to both of these tendencies,Jean Dubuffet dominated the early post-war years while exploring childlike drawings, graffiti, and cartoons in a variety of media.
Between the two world wars, an art movement known as theÉcole de Paris (School Of Paris), flourished. Centered in Paris, the movement gave rise to a unique form ofExpressionist Art. It included many foreign and French artists, many of whom wereJewish; these artists were primarily centered inMontparnasse.[11] These Jewish artists played a significant role in the École de Paris, several had sought refuge in Paris from Eastern Europe escaping persecution and pogroms.[12] Prominent figures such asMarc Chagall,Jules Pascin,Chaïm Soutine,Isaac Frenkel Frenel,Amedeo Modigliani, andAbraham Mintchine were among notable contributors to the movement in France and abroad.[13][14][15] These artists often depicted Jewish themes in their work, imbuing it with intense emotional tones.[16]
The term "l’École de Paris," coined in 1925 to counterxenophobia, acknowledged the foreign, often Jewish, artists. However, the Nazi occupation led to the tragic loss of Jewish artists during theHolocaust, resulting in the decline of the School of Paris as some artists left or fled toIsrael or theUnited States.[12][17][13][11]
The late 1950s and early 1960s in France saw art forms that might be consideredPop Art.Yves Klein had attractive nude women roll around in blue paint and throw themselves at canvases.Victor Vasarely inventedOp-Art by designing sophisticated optical patterns. Artists of theFluxus movement such asBen Vautier incorporatedgraffiti and found objects into their work.Niki de Saint Phalle created bloated and vibrant plastic figures.Arman gathered together found objects in boxed or resin-coated assemblages, andCésar Baldaccini produced a series of large compressed object-sculptures. César Baldaccini was a prominent French sculptor of the 1960s, who created large waste sculptures by compressing discarded materials, for instance, automobiles, metal, rubbish, and domestic objects.[18]
In May 1968, the radical youth movement, through theiratelier populaire, produced a great deal of poster-art protesting the moribund policies of presidentCharles de Gaulle.
Many contemporary artists continue to be haunted by the horrors of the Second World War and the specter of the Holocaust.Christian Boltanski's harrowing installations of the lost and the anonymous are particularly powerful.
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French words and expressions dealing with the arts:
Specific
" l'École de Paris is a term coined by the art critic André Warnod in 1925, in the magazine Comœdia, to define the group formed by foreign painters in Paris. The École de Paris does not designate a movement or a school in the academic sense of the term, but a historical fact. In Warnod's mind, this term was intended to counter a latent xenophobia rather than to establish a theoretical approach.
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