Frantz Omar Fanon was born on 20 July 1925 inFort-de-France,Martinique, which was then part of theFrench colonial empire. His father, Félix Casimir Fanon, worked as acustoms officer, while Fanon's mother, Eléanore Médélice, who was ofAfro-Caribbean andAlsatian descent, was a shopkeeper.[15] Fanon was the third of four sons in a family of eight children. Two of his siblings died young, including Fanon's sister Gabrielle, with whom he was very close. As they weremiddle class, his family could afford to send Fanon to theLycée Victor Schœlcher, the most prestigioussecondary school in Martinique, where Fanon came to admire one of his teachers,Aimé Césaire.[16] The young Frantz Fanon was an avid football player, and played the sport in Martinique, later organizing football matches for patients and staff while working at the Blida-Joinville psychiatric hospital in Algeria.[17][18]
After theBattle of France resulted in theFrench Third Republic capitulating toNazi Germany in July 1940, Martinique came under the control ofFrench Navy elements led by AdmiralGeorges Robert who were loyal to the collaborationistVichy regime. The disruption of imports fromMetropolitan France led to major shortages on the island, which were exacerbated by an American navalblockade imposed on Martinique in April 1943. Robert's authoritarian regime repressed localAllied sympathizers, hundreds of whom escaped to nearbyCaribbean islands. Fanon later described the Vichy regime in Martinique as taking off their masks and behaving like "authentic racists".[19] In January 1943, he fled Martinique during the wedding of one of his brothers and travelled to theBritish colony ofDominica in order to link up with other Allied sympathizers.[20]: 24
Robert's regime was overthrown by a local uprising in June of that year, which Fanon would later acclaim as "the birth of the [Martinican]proletariat" as a revolutionary force. After the uprising, Fanon "enthusiastically" returned to Martinique, whereFree French leaderCharles de Gaulle had appointedHenri Tourtet as the colony's new governor. Tourtet subsequently raised the5th Antillean Marching Battalion to serve inFree French Forces (FFL), and Fanon soon joined the unit in Fort-de-France.[21][22] He underwent basic training before boarding atroopship bound forCasablanca,Morocco in March 1944. After Fanon arrived in Morocco, he was shocked to discover the extent ofracial discrimination in the FFL. He was subsequently transferred to a Free French military base inBéjaïa,Algeria, where Fanon witnessed firsthand theantisemitism andIslamophobia of thepieds-noirs, many of whom had supported racist laws promulgated by the Vichy regime.[23]
In August 1944, he departed on another troopship fromOran to France as part ofOperation Dragoon, the Allied invasion of German-occupiedProvence. After the USVI Corps secured abeachhead, Fanon's unit came ashore atSaint-Tropez and advanced inland. He participated in several engagements nearMontbéliard,Doubs and was seriously wounded by shrapnel, which resulted in him being hospitalized for two months. Fanon was awarded aCroix de Guerre by ColonelRaoul Salan for his actions in battle, and in early 1945 rejoined his unit and fought in theBattle of Alsace.[24] After German forces had been pushed out of France and Allied troops crossed theRhine into Germany, Fanon and his fellow black troops were removed from their formations and sent southwards toToulon as part of de Gaulle's policy of removing non-white soldiers from the French army.[12] He was subsequently transferred toNormandy to awaitrepatriation.[25]
Although Fanon had been initially eager to participate in the Allied war effort, the racism he witnessed during the war disillusioned him. Fanon wrote to his brother Joby from Europe that "I've been deceived, and I am paying for my mistakes... I'm sick of it all."[15] In the fall of 1945, a newly-discharged Fanon returned to Martinique, where he focused on completing his secondary education. Césaire, by now a friend and mentor of his, ran on theFrench Communist Party ticket as a delegate from Martinique to the firstNational Assembly of theFrench Fourth Republic, and Fanon worked for his campaign. Staying in Martinique long enough to complete hisbaccalauréat, Fanon proceeded to return to France, where he intended to study medicine and psychiatry.[citation needed]
Fanon was educated at theUniversity of Lyon, where he also studied literature, drama and philosophy, sometimes attendingMerleau-Ponty's lectures. During this period, he wrote three plays, of which two survive.[26] After qualifying as apsychiatrist in 1951, Fanon did a residency in psychiatry atSaint-Alban-sur-Limagnole under the radicalCatalan psychiatristFrançois Tosquelles, who invigorated Fanon's thinking by emphasizing the role of culture in psychopathology.
In 1948, Fanon started a relationship with Michèle Weyer, a medical student, who soon became pregnant. He left her for an 18-year-old high school student, Josie, whom he married in 1952. At the urging of his friends, he later recognized his daughter,Mireille, although he did not have contact with her.[27]
In France, while completing his residency, Fanon wrote and published his first book,Black Skin, White Masks (1952), an analysis of the negative psychological effects ofcolonial subjugation upon black people. Originally, the manuscript was thedoctoral dissertation, submitted at Lyon, entitledEssay on the Disalienation of the Black, which was a response to the racism that Fanon experienced while studying psychiatry and medicine at the University in Lyon; the rejection of the dissertation prompted Fanon to publish it as a book. In 1951, for hisdoctor of medicine degree, he submitted another dissertation of narrower scope and a different subject (Altérations mentales, modifications caractérielles, troubles psychiques et déficit intellectuel dans l'hérédo-dégénération spino-cérébelleuse : à propos d'un cas de maladie de Friedreich avec délire de possession –Mental alterations, character modifications, psychic disorders, and intellectual deficit in hereditary spinocerebellar degeneration: A case of Friedreich's disease with delusions of possession).Left-wing philosopherFrancis Jeanson, leader of the pro-Algerian independenceJeanson network, read Fanon's manuscript and, as a senior book editor atÉditions du Seuil in Paris, gave the book its new title and wrote its epilogue.[28]
After receiving Fanon's manuscript at Seuil, Jeanson invited him to an editorial meeting. Amid Jeanson's praise of the book, Fanon exclaimed: "Not bad for a nigger, is it?" Insulted, Jeanson dismissed Fanon from his office. Later, Jeanson learned that his response had earned him the writer's lifelong respect, and Fanon acceded to Jeanson's suggestion that the book be entitledBlack Skin, White Masks.[28]
In the book, Fanon described the unfair treatment of black people in France and how they were disapproved of bywhite people. Frantz argued that racism and dehumanization directed toward black people caused feelings of inferiority among black people. This dehumanization prevented black people from fully assimilating into white society and, further, into full personhood. This caused psychological strife among black people, as even if they spoke French, obtained an education, and followed social customs associated with white people, they would still never be regarded as French, or a Man; instead, black people are defined as "Black Man" rather than "Man". (See further discussion ofBlack Skin, White Masks under Work, below.)
After his residency, Fanon practised psychiatry atPontorson, nearMont Saint-Michel, for another year and then (from 1953) inAlgeria. He waschef de service at theBlida-Joinville Psychiatric Hospital in Algeria. He worked there until his deportation in January 1957.[29]
Fanon's methods of treatment started evolving, particularly by beginningsocio-therapy to connect with his patients'cultural backgrounds. He also trained nurses and interns. Following the outbreak of theAlgerian revolution in November 1954, Fanon joined theFront de Libération Nationale (FLN), after having made contact withPierre Chaulet at Blida in 1955. Working at a French hospital in Algeria, Fanon became responsible for treating the psychological distress of the French soldiers and officers who carried out torture in order to suppress anti-colonial resistance. Additionally, Fanon was also responsible for treating Algeriantorture victims.
Fanon made extensive trips across Algeria, mainly in theKabylia region, to study the cultural and psychological life of Algerians. His lost study of "Themarabout of Si Slimane" is an example. These trips were also a means for clandestine activities, notably in his visits to the ski resort ofChrea which hid an FLN base.
By summer 1956, Fanon realized that he could no longer continue to support French efforts, even indirectly, via his hospital work. In November, he submitted his "Letter of Resignation to the Resident Minister", which later became an influential text of its own inanti-colonialist circles.[30]
There comes a time when silence becomes dishonesty. The ruling intentions of personal existence are not in accord with the permanent assaults on the most commonplace values. For many months, my conscience has been the seat of unpardonable debates. And the conclusion is the determination not to despair of man, in other words, of myself. The decision I have reached is that I cannot continue to bear a responsibility at no matter what cost, on the false pretext that there is nothing else to be done.
Shortly afterwards, Fanon was expelled from Algeria and moved toTunis, where he joined the FLN openly. He was part of the editorial collective ofAl Moudjahid, for which he wrote until the end of his life. He also served asAmbassador toGhana for the Provisional Algerian Government (GPRA). He attended conferences inAccra,Conakry,Addis Ababa,Leopoldville,Cairo andTripoli. Many of his shorter writings from this period were collected posthumously in the bookToward the African Revolution. In this book, Fanon reveals war tactical strategies; in one chapter, he discusses how to open a southern front to the war and how to run the supply lines.[29]
Upon his return toTunis, after his exhausting trip across theSahara to open a Third Front, Fanon was diagnosed withleukemia. He went to theSoviet Union for treatment and experiencedremission of his illness. When he came back to Tunis once again, he dictated his testamentThe Wretched of the Earth. When he was not confined to his bed, he delivered lectures toArmée de Libération Nationale (ALN) officers atGhardimao on the Algerian–Tunisian border. He traveled toRome for a three-day meeting withJean-Paul Sartre, who had greatly influenced his work. Sartre agreed to write a preface to Fanon's last book,The Wretched of the Earth.[31]
With his health declining, Fanon's comrades urged him to seek treatment in theU.S. as his Soviet doctors had suggested.[32] In 1961, theCIA arranged a trip under the promise of stealth for further leukemia treatment at aNational Institutes of Health facility.[32][33] During his time in the United States, Fanon was handled by CIA agent Oliver Iselin.[34] As Lewis R. Gordon points out, the circumstances of Fanon's stay are somewhat disputed: "What has become orthodoxy, however, is that he was kept in a hotel without treatment for several days until he contracted pneumonia."[32]
Frantz Fanon was survived by his French wife, Josie (née Dublé), their son, Olivier Fanon, and his daughter from a previous relationship,Mireille Fanon-Mendès France.Josie Fanon later became disillusioned with the government and after years of depression and drinking died bysuicide inAlgiers in 1989.[29][37] Mireille became a professor of international law and conflict resolution and serves as president of the Frantz Fanon Foundation. Olivier became president of the Frantz Fanon National Association, which was created in Algiers in 2012.[38]
Black Skin, White Masks was first published in French asPeau noire, masques blancs in 1952 and is one of Fanon's most important works. InBlack Skin, White Masks, Fanon psychoanalyzes the oppressed black person who is perceived to have to be a lesser creature in the white world that they live in, and studies how they navigate the world through a performance ofWhiteness.[15] Particularly in discussing language, he talks about how the black person's use of a colonizer's language is seen by the colonizer as predatory, and not transformative, which in turn may create insecurity in the black's consciousness.[39] He recounts that he himself faced many admonitions as a child for usingCreole French instead of "real French", or "French French", that is, "white" French.[15] Ultimately, he concludes that "mastery of language [of the white/colonizer] for the sake of recognitionas white reflects a dependency that subordinates the black's humanity".[39]
The reception of his work has been affected by English translations which are recognized to contain numerous omissions and errors, while his unpublished work, including his doctoral thesis, has received little attention. As a result, it has been argued that Fanon has often been portrayed as an advocate of violence (it would be more accurate to characterize him as a dialectical opponent of nonviolence) and that his ideas have been extremely oversimplified. This reductionist vision of Fanon's work ignores the subtlety of his understanding of the colonial system. For example, the fifth chapter ofBlack Skin, White Masks translates, literally, as "The Lived Experience of the Black" ("L'expérience vécue du Noir"), but Markmann's translation is "The Fact of Blackness", which leaves out the massive influence ofphenomenology on Fanon's early work.[40]
Although Fanon wroteBlack Skin, White Masks while still in France, most of his work was written inNorth Africa. It was during this time that he produced works such asL'An Cinq, de la Révolution Algérienne in 1959 (Year Five of the Algerian Revolution), later republished asSociology of a Revolution and later still asA Dying Colonialism. Fanon's original title was "Reality of a Nation"; however, the publisher,François Maspero, refused to accept this title.
Fanon's three books were supplemented by numerous psychiatry articles as well as radical critiques of French colonialism in journals such asEsprit andEl Moudjahid.
A Dying Colonialism is a 1959 book by Fanon that provides an account of how, during the Algerian Revolution, the people of Algeria fought their oppressors. They changed centuries-old cultural patterns and embraced certain ancient cultural practices long derided by their colonialist oppressors as "primitive," in order to destroy the oppressors. Fanon uses the fifth year of the Algerian Revolution as a point of departure for an explication of the inevitable dynamics of colonial oppression. The militant book describes Fanon's understanding that for the colonized, “having a gun is the only chance you still have of giving a meaning to your death.”[41] It also contains one of his most influential articles, "Unveiled Algeria", that signifies the fall of imperialism and describes how oppressed people struggle to decolonize their "mind" to avoid assimilation.
InThe Wretched of the Earth (1961,Les damnés de la terre), published shortly before Fanon's death, Fanon defends the right of a colonized people to use violence to gain independence. In addition, he delineated the processes and forces leading to national independence or neocolonialism during the decolonization movement that engulfed much of the world afterWorld War II. In defence of the use of violence by colonized peoples, Fanon argued that human beings who are not considered as such (by the colonizer) shall not be bound by principles that apply to humanity in their attitude towards the colonizer. His book wascensored by the French government.
For Fanon inThe Wretched of the Earth, the colonizer's presence in Algeria is based on sheer military strength. Any resistance to this strength must also be of a violent nature because it is the only "language" the colonizer speaks. Thus, violent resistance is a necessity imposed by the colonists upon the colonized. The relevance of language and the reformation of discourse pervades much of his work, which is why it is so interdisciplinary, spanning psychiatric concerns to encompass politics, sociology, anthropology, linguistics and literature.[42]
His participation in the AlgerianFront de Libération Nationale from 1955 determined his audience as the Algerian colonized. It was to them that his final work,Les damnés de la terre (translated into English by Constance Farrington asThe Wretched of the Earth) was directed. It constitutes a warning to the oppressed of the dangers they face in the whirlwind of decolonization and the transition to aneo-colonialist,globalized world.[43]
An often overlooked aspect of Fanon's work is that he did not like to physically write his pieces. Instead, he would dictate to his wife, Josie, who did all of the writing and, in some cases, contributed and edited.[39]
Aimé Césaire was a particularly significant influence in Fanon's life. Césaire, a leader of theNégritude movement, was teacher andmentor to Fanon on the island of Martinique.[44] Fanon was first introduced toNégritude during his lycée days in Martinique when Césaire coined the term and presented his ideas inTropiques, the journal that he edited with Suzanne Césaire, his wife, in addition to his now classicCahier d'un retour au pays natal (Journal of a Homecoming).[45] Fanon referred to Césaire's writings in his own work. He quoted, for example, his teacher at length in "The Lived Experience of the Black Man", a heavilyanthologized essay fromBlack Skins, White Masks.[46]
Fanon has had an influence on anti-colonial andnational liberation movements. In particular,Les damnés de la terre was a major influence on the work of revolutionary leaders such asAli Shariati in Iran,Steve Biko in South Africa,Malcolm X in the United States andErnesto Che Guevara inCuba. Of these, only Guevara was primarily concerned with Fanon's theories on violence;[47] for Shariati and Biko the main interest in Fanon was "the new man" and "black consciousness" respectively.[48]
With regard to the American liberation struggle more commonly known asThe Black Power Movement, Fanon's work was especially influential. His bookWretched of the Earth is quoted directly in the preface ofStokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) andCharles Hamilton's book,Black Power: The Politics of Liberation[49] which was published in 1967, shortly after Carmichael left theStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In addition, Carmichael and Hamilton include much of Fanon's theory onColonialism in their work, beginning by framing the situation of former slaves in America as a colony situated inside a nation. "To put it another way, there is no "American dilemma" because black people in this country form a colony, and it is not in the interest of the colonial power to liberate them".[49] Another example is the indictment of the black middle class or what Fanon called the "colonized intellectual" as the indoctrinated followers of the colonial power. Fanon states, "The native intellectual has clothed his aggressiveness in his barely veiled desire to assimilate himself to the colonial world".[50] A third example is the idea that the natives (African Americans) should be constructing new social systems rather than participating in the systems created by the settler population. Ture and Hamilton contend that "black people should create rather than imitate".[49]
Banner outside the Minneapolis Police Department fourth precinct following the officer-involved shooting of Jamar Clark on November 15, 2015.
The Black Power group that Fanon had the most influence on was theBlack Panther Party (BPP). In 1970Bobby Seale, the Chairman of the BPP, published a collection of recorded observations made while he was incarcerated entitledSeize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton.[51] This book, while not an academic text, is a primary source chronicling the history of the BPP through the eyes of one of its founders. While describing one of his first meetings withHuey P. Newton, Seale describes bringing him a copy ofWretched of the Earth. There are at least three other direct references to the book, all of them mentioning ways in which the book was influential and how it was included in the curriculum required of all new BPP members. Beyond just reading the text, Seale and the BPP included much of the work in their party platform. The Panther 10 Point Plan contained six points which either directly or indirectly referenced ideas in Fanon's work; these six points included their contention that there must be an end to the "robbery by the white man", and "education that teaches us our true history and our role in present day society".[51] One of the most important elements adopted by the BPP was the need to build the "humanity" of the native. Fanon claimed that the realization by the native that s/he was human would mark the beginning of the push for freedom.[50] The BPP embraced this idea through the work of their Community Schools andFree Breakfast Programs.
Fanon's influence extended to the liberation movements of thePalestinians, theTamils,African Americans and others. His work was a key influence on the Black Panther Party, particularly his ideas concerningnationalism, violence and thelumpenproletariat. More recently, radical South African poor people's movements, such asAbahlali baseMjondolo (meaning 'people who live in shacks' inZulu), have been influenced by Fanon's work.[54] His work was a key influence on Brazilian educationistPaulo Freire, as well.
Fanon's writings on black sexuality inBlack Skin, White Masks have garnered critical attention by a number of academics andqueer theory scholars. Interrogating Fanon's perspective on the nature of black homosexuality and masculinity, queer theory academics have offered a variety of critical responses to Fanon's words, balancing his position withinpostcolonial studies with his influence on the formation of contemporary black queer theory.[57][58][59][60][61][62]
Fanon's legacy has expanded even further into Black Studies and more specifically, into the theories ofAfro-pessimism and Black critical theory. Thinkers such asSylvia Wynter,David Marriott,Frank B. Wilderson III,Jared Yates Sexton, Calvin Warren, and Zakkiyah Iman Jackson have taken up Fanon'sontological,phenomenological, andpsychoanalytic analyses of the Negro and the "zone of non-being" in order to develop theories of anti-Blackness. Putting Fanon in conversation with prominent thinkers such as Sylvia Wynter,Saidiya Hartman, andHortense Spillers, and focusing primarily on the Charles Lam Markmann translation ofBlack Skin, White Masks, Black critical theorists and Afropessimists take seriously the ontological implications of the "Fact of Blackness" and "The Negro and Psychopathology", formulating the Black or the Slave as the non-relational, phobic object that constitutescivil society.[63][64][65][66][67][68][69]
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Gavin Arnall,Subterranean Fanon: An Underground Theory of Radical Change (2020, New York: Columbia University Press)
Stefan Bird-Pollan,Hegel, Freud and Fanon: The Dialectic of Emancipation (2014, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.)
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Joby Fanon,Frantz Fanon, My Brother: Doctor, Playwright, Revolutionary (2014, United States: Lexington Books)
Peter Geismar,Fanon (1971, Grove Press)
Irene Gendzier,Frantz Fanon: A Critical Study (1974, London: Wildwood House),ISBN0-7045-0002-7
Nigel C. Gibson (ed.),Rethinking Fanon: The Continuing Dialogue (1999, Amherst, New York: Humanity Books)
Nigel C. Gibson,Fanon: The Postcolonial Imagination (2003, Oxford: Polity Press)
Nigel C. Gibson,Fanonian Practices in South Africa (2011, London: Palgrave Macmillan)
Nigel C. Gibson (ed.),Living Fanon: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (2011, London: Palgrave Macmillan and the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal Press)
Nigel C. Gibson and Roberto BeneduceFrantz Fanon, Psychiatry and Politics (2017, London: Rowman and Littlefield International and The University of Witwatersrand Press)
Alexander V. Gordon,Frantz Fanon and the Fight for National Liberation (1977, Moscow: Nauka, in Russian)
Lewis R. Gordon,Fanon and the Crisis of European Man: An Essay on Philosophy and the Human Sciences (1995, New York: Routledge)
Lewis Gordon,What Fanon Said (2015, New York, Fordham)ISBN9780823266081
Lewis R. Gordon, T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting, & Renee T. White (eds),Fanon: A Critical Reader (1996, Oxford: Blackwell)
Peter Hudis,Frantz Fanon: Philosopher of the Barricades (2015, London: Pluto Press)
Christopher J. Lee,Frantz Fanon: Toward a Revolutionary Humanism (2015, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press)
Concerning Violence: Nine scenes from the Anti-Imperialist Self-Defense, a 2014 documentary written and directed by Göran Olsson that is based on Frantz Fanon's essay "Concerning Violence", from his 1961 bookThe Wretched of the Earth.
Luce – the main character of the movie wrote a paper about Frantz Fanon and is said to be inspired by his ideology.
Fanon [fr], a 2025 biopic directed by Jean-Claude Barny about Frantz Fanon's life and involvement in the Algerian independence movement.
^abDavid Macey,Frantz Fanon: A Biography (2000), New York: Picador Press.
^Nigel Gibson,Fanonian Practices in South Africa, University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.
^Duran, Eduardo-1 Bonnie-2 (1996).Native American Postcolonial Psychology. Library of Congress: State University of New York Press. p. 186.ISBN0-7914-2354-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"Two centuries ago, a former European colony decided to catch up with Europe. It succeeded so well that the United States of America became a monster, in which the taints, the sickness and the inhumanity of Europe have grown to appalling dimensions.Comrades, have we not other work to do than to create a third Europe? [...] It is a question of the Third World starting a new history of Man, a history which will have regard to the sometimes prodigious theses which Europe has put forward, but which will also not forget Europe's crimes, of which the most horrible was committed in the heart of man, and consisted of the pathological tearing apart of his functions and the crumbling away of his unity. And in the framework of the collectivity, there were the differentiations, the stratification and the bloodthirsty tensions fed by classes; and finally, on the immense scale of humanity, there were racial hatreds, slavery, exploitation and above all the bloodless genocide which consisted in the setting aside of fifteen thousand millions of men.So, comrades, let us not pay tribute to Europe by creating states, institutions and societies which draw their inspiration from her."The Wretched of the Earth –"Conclusions".
^The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, second edition, 2010, p. 1438.
^Lewis R. Gordon, T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting, & Renee T. White (eds),Fanon: A Critical Reader (1996: Oxford: Blackwell), p. 163, and Bianchi, Eugene C.,The Religious Experience of Revolutionaries (1972: Doubleday), p. 206.
^abcHamilton, Charles V. (2011).Black Power: Politics of Liberation in America. Stokely Carmichael. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 5, 144.ISBN978-0-679-74313-2.
^abSeale, Bobby (1991).Seize the time: the story of the Black Panther party and Huey P. Newton. Baltimore, Md.: Black Classic Press. p. 67.ISBN978-0933121300.OCLC24636234.
^Vincent B. Leitch et al. (eds),The Norton Anthology of Theory & Criticism, second edition 2010: New York: W. W. Norton & Company [www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71619?oid=393903&sn=Detai], Politicsweb, 25 July 2013.
^Mercer, Kobena (1996). "The fact of Blackness: Frantz Fanon and Visual Representation". In Read, Alan (ed.).Decolonization and Disappointment: Reading Fanon's Sexual Politics. Seattle: Bay Press.
^Fuss, Diana (1994). "Interior Colonies: Frantz Fanon and the Politics of Identification".Diacritics.24 (2/3):19–42.doi:10.2307/465162.JSTOR465162.
^Fanon, Frantz.Black Skin, White Masks. Markmann, Charles Lam., Sardar, Ziauddin., Bhabha, Homi K., 1949- (New ed.). London.ISBN9781435691063.OCLC298658340.
^Wilderson III, Frank B. (2010).Red, White & Black: Cinema and the Structure of U.S. Antagonisms. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.ISBN9780822346920.OCLC457770963.
^Marriott, D. (2018).Whither Fanon?: Studies in the Blackness of Being. Stanford, California.ISBN9780804798709.OCLC999542477.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Jared, Sexton (2008).Amalgamation schemes: Antiblackness and the Critique of Multiracialism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.ISBN9780816656639.OCLC318220788.
^Hartman, Saidiya V. (1997).Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0195089839.OCLC36417797.
^Warren, Calvin L. (10 May 2018).Ontological Terror: Blackness, Nihilism, and Emancipation. Durham.ISBN9780822371847.OCLC1008764960.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Spillers, Hortense J. (2003).Black, White, and in Color: Essays on American Literature and Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN0226769798.OCLC50604796.
Hansen, Emmanuel (1974). "Frantz Fanon: portrait of a revolutionary intellectual".Transition.46 (46):25–36.doi:10.2307/2934953.JSTOR2934953.
Decker, Jeffrey Louis (1990). "Terrorism (un) veiled: Frantz Fanon and the women of Algiers".Cultural Critique.17 (17):177–95.doi:10.2307/1354144.JSTOR1354144.
Mazrui, Alamin (1993). "Language and the quest for liberation in Africa: The legacy of Frantz Fanon".Third World Quarterly.14 (2):351–63.doi:10.1080/01436599308420329.
Gibson, Nigel (1999). "Beyond manicheanism: Dialectics in the thought of Frantz Fanon".Journal of Political Ideologies.4 (3):337–64.doi:10.1080/13569319908420802.
Lopes, Rui; Barros, Víctor (2019). "Amílcar Cabral and the Liberation of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde: International, Transnational, and Global Dimensions".The International History Review.42 (6):1230–1237.doi:10.1080/07075332.2019.1703118.hdl:10362/94384.S2CID214034536.
Morgan, W. John, and Alexandre Guilherme (2016), "The Contrasting Philosophies of Martin Buber and Frantz Fanon: Thepolitical in Education asdialogue or asdefiance",Diogenes, Vol. 61(1) 28–43, doi: 10.1177/0392192115615789. First published in French in 2013.
von Holdt, Karl (March 2013). "The violence of order, orders of violence: Between Fannon and Bourdieu".Current Sociology.61 (2):112–31.doi:10.1177/0011392112456492.S2CID220701604.
TheFrantz Fanon collectionArchived 16 July 2020 at theWayback Machine which includes correspondence and manuscripts of Fanon's work is held atL'Institut mémoires de l'édition contemporaine (IMEC), in Saint-Germain-la-Blanche-Herbe, France.
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