| Francs-tireurs et partisans | |
|---|---|
| Francs-tireurs et partisans français | |
 Paratroopers and FTP members during theBattle of Normandy, summer 1944 | |
| Leaders | Charles Tillon Jules Dumont Georges Vallet Albert Ouzoulias Eugène Hénaff René Camphin |
| Dates of operation | October 1941 - February 1, 1944 |
| Groups | FTP-MOI National Front |
| Ideology | Communism Anti-fascism |
| Political position | Far-left |
| Part of | French Communist Party |
| Allies |  Soviet Union Free France United Kingdom United States |
| Opponents |  Nazi Germany Vichy France Italy |
| Battles and wars | French Resistance Normandy Campaign |
TheFrancs-tireurs et partisans français[a] (French:[fʁɑ̃tiʁœʁepaʁtizɑ̃fʁɑ̃sɛ];FTPF), or commonly theFrancs-tireurs et partisans (FTP), was an armed resistance organization created by leaders of theFrench Communist Party duringWorld War II (1939–45). The communist party was neutral at first, following theSoviet Union's official view that the war was a struggle between imperialists, but changed to a policy of armed resistance against the German occupation of France after Germanyinvaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.[1] Three groups were formed, consisting of party members, young communists and foreign workers. Early in 1942 they were merged to form the FTP, which undertook sabotage and assassinations of the occupation. The FTP became the best organized and most effective of theFrench Resistance groups. In March 1944, before theAllied forces returned to Normandy, the FTP was theoretically merged with the other Resistance groups. In practice, it retained its independence until the end of the war.
Germany attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 inOperation Barbarossa.With this, the policy of theFrench Communist Party (Parti communiste français, PCF) switched to support for armed struggle against the German occupiers.[2]TheNational Front (Front national de l'indépendance de la France) was created as aFrench Resistance movement in the northern area in June 1941.[3]TheFront national was theoretically independent of the PCF, but in reality it was dominated by the PCF.[2]At first the objectives were mainly political, taking advantage of the unstable situation under the occupying German army.[3]Charles Tillon was put in charge of military matters.[2]
On 2 August 1941Albert Ouzoulias was put in charge of theBataillons de la Jeunesse, fighting groups that were being created by theJeunesses Communistes.[4] Soon after,Arthur Dallidet introduced him toEugène Hénaff, who was responsible for the armed struggle under the direction of Tillon.[5]In October 1941 the PCF decided to unify its armed groups into theOrganisation spéciale.[5] Hénaff joined the leadership of the PCF'sOrganisation Spéciale, where he was responsible for coordinating between the various armed units. He was a member of theComité militaire national, which became theFrancs-tireurs et partisans français (FTPF).[6]
Rather than limit armed action to Communists, it was decided to create a non-Communist organization, theFrancs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP), under theFront national.[7][failed verification]The FTP was open to non-communists but operated under communist control.[8]The FTP movement was seen as a way to increase the political influence of the Communist Party in the future government of France.[9]A special issue ofL'Humanité in February 1942 confirmed the existence of "partisans et de francs-tireurs" (partisans and free-shooters) to whom patriots should give aid and assistance. Another special issue in March 1942 urged people to form such groups to conduct guerrilla war and help the population defend itself against the "boches".[10]
The FTP was created in April 1942, led by Charles Tillon.[7]On 3 April 1942L'Humanité used the expression "Francs-Tireurs et Partisans" for the first time, and in following weeks reported acts of sabotage of war production and attacks against German soldiers andFrench collaborators. The paper began using the initials FTP in July 1942.[10]The FTP's mandate was to sabotage railways and factories, punish collaborators and assassinate German soldiers.[11]
The FTP unified three Communist organizations, theBataillons de la Jeunesse, theOrganisation Spéciale and theMain-d'œuvre immigrée (MOI).[7]The FTP national committee was headed byCharles Tillon, commander in chief.[10]Eugène Hénaff was political commissioner of the force until May 1943, when he was replaced byRené Camphin [fr].Albert Ouzoulias was in charge of operations, and Georges Beyer was responsible for armaments and recruitment.[12]Marcel Prenant [fr], a captain of the reserve, was Chief of Staff.He wrote some of the manuals on tactics and armament, but his main role was to act as liaison between the FTP and theGaullist resistance groups.[12]
The inter-regional and departmental military committees reported to the central organization in groups of three, a basic principle in the communist Resistance. In the field, each group would consist of two groups of three or four men under a commander and his assistant.[12]For as long as possible they would continue to work in their normal occupations, only coming together to undertake an operation and then if possible returning to their normal daily life.[12]Ouzoulias was a proponent of quick strikes against carefully studied targets by small groups of fighters, who would then rapidly withdraw. He also drew up guidelines for urban warfare in which FTP units could attack greatly superior German forces and be protected while they withdrew.[5]Tillon called this a strategy of "drops of mercury", through which the group could use surprise and mobility to achieve transient superiority before disappearing.[12]
TheFTP-MOI (Francs-tireurs et partisans – main-d'œuvre immigrée) was created in the spring of 1942 with four detachments made up of communists of "immigrant" origin.Most of its fighters were Jews from France, Hungary, Romania or elsewhere in Europe. Some were former volunteers in theInternational Brigades of theSpanish Civil War (1936–39). Leaflets and publications were issued in Yiddish.[13]Although integrated with the FTP, the FTP-MOI groups retained their autonomy, which caused problems at times.[10]The FTP-MOI were aroused to violent reprisals against the Germans by theVel' d'Hiv Roundup in July 1942 in which Jews in Paris and other parts of France were arrested, detained and then deported to be killed in theAuschwitz concentration camp.[13]The violence of the FTP-MOI in their struggle for survival did not always coincide with the interests of the French people. They received little recognition in France after the war.[14]
The FTP-MOI were the target of the notoriousAffiche Rouge poster campaign, which emphasised the composition of the group's membership in an attempt to discredit the Resistance as not "French" enough.[15] The campaign seems to have had the effect of highlighting their feats to the general public as freedom fighters.
The military strength of the communists was still relatively feeble at the end of 1941, but the rapid growth of the FTP ensured that French communists regained their reputation as an effective anti-fascist force.[16]Arthur Dallidet was placed in charge of security.[11]Dallidet was recognized talking to a woman in a cafe beside theReuilly metro station on the evening on 28 February 1942. He was arrested, taken toLa Santé Prison, chained, handcuffed and severely beaten. He did not reveal any information, but had been carrying a long list of names and addresses. This led to other arrests including "Betty" (Madeleine Passot), his most important liaison officer. Further names and addresses were found in Betty's apartment.[17]
Gradually the FTP developed a more military organization, with sections, companies and battalions, each containing three lower-level groups. There were often gaps in this paper organization.[12] The FTP complained that the British and Gaullists were deliberately depriving them of arms, although more likely the problem was that they did not have the necessary contacts to arrange delivery.[18]
In November 1943Joseph Epstein, the FTP Chief of Staff, was arrested and subjected to extreme torture, but revealed nothing.[5][b] This was followed by a major police operation that largely destroyed the FTP's Paris organization.[5] From the end of 1943 the national organization began to intensify preparation for a national uprising to support the expected Allied landings in Europe.[5]
By 1944, the FTP had an estimated strength of 100,000 men and women.[20]In March 1944 GeneralCharles de Gaulle placed all theFrench Forces of the Interior (Forces françaises de l'intérieur, FFI) under the authority of GeneralMarie-Pierre Kœnig, but the FTP retained its de facto independence. During the AlliedNormandy Campaign the FTP conducted delaying actions in the center and southwest of France against the German troops who had been recalled to the battle zone.[3]
From June to August 1944 Ouzoulias coordinated the FTP's military action in the Paris region.[7] Ouzoulias and ColonelHenri Rol-Tanguy, who led theÎle-de-France Resistance movement, planned a major rising in Paris which played a vital role during the August 1944Liberation of Paris.[4]
The FFI in Paris led byAlexandre Parodi andJacques Chaban-Delmas urged patience while Tanguy wanted to start a revolt, being deterred only by the fact that the Resistance in Paris had about 15,000 men, but only 600 guns, mostly rifles and machine guns.[21] On 19 August 1944, the Paris police, until then still loyal to Vichy, went over to the Resistance as a group of policemen hosted thetricolore over the Préfecture de Police on the Ile de la Cité, which was the first time the tricolor had flown in Paris since June 1940. Emboldened, Tanguy and his men started to attack German forces on theBoulevard Saint-Michel andBoulevard Saint-Germain, leading to a mass insurrection as Parisians started to build barricades in the streets. By the end of the day, about 50 Germans and 150résistants had been killed and not wanting the Communists to have the credit for liberating Paris, the Gaullist Parodi sanctioned the uprising.[21]
Faced with an urban uprising that he was unprepared for, the city's German commanderDietrich von Choltitz arranged a truce with Parodi via the Swedish consulRaoul Nordling, marking the first time that the Germans had treated the resistance as a legitimate opponent.[21] But they skirmished on 22 August, when some German units tried to leave their fortifications. On 23 August, under Choltitz's orders, the Germans opened fire on theGrand Palais, an FFI stronghold, and German tanks fired at the barricades in the streets. Hitler gave the order to inflict maximum damage on the city.[22]
Among those participating in the fighting were those resisters freed on 19 August Four in a Nordling negotiated prisoner exchange. These included 19 year-oldMadeleine Riffaud who on 23 August led the FTP operation that trapped a train carrying loot and munitions from the city in theButtes-Chaumont tunnel and secured the surrender of the 80 German soldiers aboard.[23]
On the 25 August, after an advance unit ofGeneral Leclerc's2nd Armored Division, "La Nueve" (160 men, most of whom wereSpanish Republicans) had broken into the city and reached theHotel de Ville,[24] von Choltitz capitulated. The last FTP operation in the city (in which Riffaud also participated) was on the 26th, an attack on the barracks onPlace de la République, whose garrison who refused to accept von Choltitz's order to surrender.[25]
On 28 August 1944 de Gaulle put Ouzoulias in charge of the FTP and the FFI.[7] In the autumn of 1944 Ouzoulias was charged by de Gaulle with integrating the FTP members with the regular French army.[7] In October 1944 the communist militias were dissolved and the FTP was integrated intoGeneral de Lattre's army.[3]
In 2019, a surviving member of FTP, Edmond Réveil, revealed details of the June 1944 execution of up to 40 Nazi occupiers, taken during theTulle uprising, along with a woman collaborator, atLe Vert, nearMeymac. After delay due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, forensic examination of the likely burial site only began in May 2023, initially usingground-penetrating radar.[26] 11 bodies had been found at the site in 1967; by August 2023 artefacts had been unearthed, but no further bodies.[27]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)| Creation and control |  | |
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| Free France | ||
| Domestic operations | ||
| Underground media | ||
| Free French Africa | ||
| Liberation of France | ||
| Leaders | ||
| Museums and Memorials | ||
| International | |
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| National | |
| Other | |
