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 France |  Vietnam |
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| French Embassy, Hanoi | Vietnamese Embassy, Paris |
France–Vietnam relations (French:Relations franco-vietnamiennes;Vietnamese:quan hệ Pháp-Việt) are the diplomatic and historical relations between theFrench Republic and theSocialist Republic of Vietnam. These relations began in the 17th century with Catholic missions and various traders until the major involvement of French forces underPierre Pigneau de Béhaine from 1787 to 1789 helped establish theNguyễn dynasty. France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century under the pretext of protecting Catholic missions and ensuring trading privileges in the country. In practice, however, colonial officials inFrench Indochina were stronglysecularist.[1]
French–Vietnamese contacts can be traced to 1658, when the firstFrench missionaries, Joseph Francis Tissanier and Pierre Jacques Albier,S.J., under the PortuguesePadroado, arrived in Vietnam.[2]
One of the early missionaries in Vietnam was the Jesuit priestAlexandre de Rhodes, who arrived in 1624. He was fromAvignon (then part of thePapal States, now in France); his mother tongue wasProvençal, and he wroteFrench poorly.[3]
Alexandre de Rhodes returned to Europe in 1650, to advocate the dispatch of bishops in order to better accompany the development of Roman Catholicism in Vietnam (at that time around 100,000 converts), and the dispatch ofbishops in order to create a strong nativeclergy and, to avoid in Vietnam a catastrophic eradication of Christianity, as seen in the case ofChristianity in Japan around 1620:[4]
"We have all reason to fear that what happened to the Church of Japan could also happen to the Church of Annam, because these kings, inTonkin as well as inCochinchina, are very powerful and accustomed to war... It is necessary that theHoly See, by its own movement, give pastors to these Oriental regions where Christians multiply in a marvelous way, lest, without bishops, these men die without sacrament and manifestly risk damnation."
The efforts of Alexandre de Rhodes helped to the creation of theParis Foreign Missions Society (MEP), marking the involvement of Catholic France as a new missionary power in Asia. From 1662, a base was established inAyutthaya,Siam, byMgr Lambert de la Motte andMgr Pallu, from where numerous attempts were made to send missionaries to Vietnam.
Meanwhile, the Jesuits under the PortuguesePadroado continued their efforts in Vietnam. In 1658, Fathers Manoel Ferreira and FrenchmanJoseph Tissanier arrived inTonkin,[6] but they were expelled in 1664 under the rule ofTrịnh Tạc, and fled to Ayutthaya.[7] In June 1666, the Ayutthaya base of the Paris Foreign Missions Society dispatched FatherFrançois Deydier to Tonkin, who was able to reorganize Catholics there, although he remained in hiding.[8]Mgr Lambert de la Motte himself would also visit the mission in Tonkin in 1669 and reinforce the organization there, under cover of trading activities of theFrench East India Company.[8]
In 1680, the French East India Company opened a factory inPhố Hiến.[9] The famous FrenchmanPierre Poivre visited Vietnam from 1720.[9] Missionaries of various nationalities, including Portuguese, Italian/Papal, French, and Spanish, working in Vietnam during the 17th and 18th centuries belonged to the Jesuit Order, the MEP, theDominican Order, theDiscalced Augustinian Order, theFranciscan Order, or were sent directly by theCongregation for the Propagation of the Faith. By the end of the 18th century, Catholicism had become a firmly established part of Vietnam's spiritual and social landscape, particularly inĐàng Ngoài.[10]
Towards the end of the 18th century, theTây Sơn rebellion overthrew theNguyễn family, but one of its membersNguyễn Ánh, future EmperorGia Long, with the aid of the French Catholic priestPierre Pigneau de Béhaine, titular bishop of Adran, obtained a treaty of alliance with the French kingLouis XVI:[11] theTreaty of Versailles, signed on November 21, 1787.[12] In return Gia Long promised to cedePulo-Condore to the French and to give a concession to the French inTourane (modernDa Nang), as well as exclusive trading rights. That treaty marks the beginning of French influence in Indochina, but the Governor inPondicherry,Count de Conway, refused to follow through with the implementation of the treaty, leaving Béhaine to his own means.
In spite of these inconveniences, between 1789 and 1799, a French force mustered by Béhaine managed to support Gia Long in acquiring sway over the whole of Vietnam.[13] The French trained Vietnamese troops, established a navy, and built fortifications in theVauban style,[11] such as theCitadel of Saigon or theCitadel of Duyên Khanh. Several of these French adventurers would remain in high positions in the government of Gia Long such asPhilippe Vannier,Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau,de Forsans and the doctorDespiau.
The death of Gia Long, and the accession of EmperorMinh Mạng in 1820 severely strained relations between France and Vietnam. In an effort to reestablish close contacts, Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau was nominated French Consul inHuế. He offered a peace treaty, but remained unsuccessful, and left Vietnam definitively with Philippe Vannier and their families in December 1824. On 12 January 1825, an embassy led by CaptainsHyacinthe de Bougainville andCourson de la Ville-Hélio arrived inĐà Nẵng, with the warshipsThétis andEspérance.[14] Although they had numerous presents from the Emperor and a letter fromLouis XVIII delivered on 8 January 1824, the ambassadors could not obtain an audience from Minh Mạng.[15]
In 1825, emperorMinh Mạng issued an edict prohibiting foreign missionaries in Vietnam, following the infiltration of Father Regéreau from theThétis when it was anchored in Đà Nẵng.[16] In his edict, Minh Mạng asserted that Christianity perverted the people:
"The Westerner's perverse religion confuses the hearts of men. For a long time, many Western ships have come to trade with us and to introduce Catholic missionaries into our country. These missionaries make the people's hearts crooked, thus destroying our beautiful customs. Truly this is a great disaster for our land. Our purpose being to prevent our people from abandoning our orthodox way, we must accordingly completely eliminate these abuses."
— Minh Mạng 1825 Edict against Christianity.[16]
As the prohibition proved largely ineffective, and missionaries continued their activities in Vietnam, especially under the protection of the governor of CochinchinaLê Văn Duyệt, a total ban on Roman Catholicism as well as French and Vietnamese priests was enacted following their support of theLê Văn Khôi revolt (1833–1835), leading to persecutions of French missionaries and the execution of FatherJoseph Marchand in 1835.[11][15] These events fed in France a desire to intervene and protect the Roman Catholic faith.
Following the defeat of China by Great Britain in theOpium War, emperor Minh Mạng attempted to build an alliance with European powers by sending a delegation under the mandarin Ton That Tuong in 1840. They were received in Paris byPrime MinisterMarshal Soult and the Commerce Minister, but they were shunned by KingLouis-Philippe. This came after theParis Foreign Missions Society and theVatican had urged a rebuke for an "enemy of the religion". The embassy offered in vain a trade monopoly for France, in exchange for the promise of military support in case of an attack by another country.[17] An attempt to make a treaty with America also failed when Minh Mạng died in 1841.[15]
Minh Mạng's successor,Thiệu Trị, also upheld the anti-Catholic policy of his predecessor but tried to avoid direct confrontations. CaptainFavin-Lévêque, arriving in Đà Nẵng in 1840 on board the corvetteHéroïne, obtained from Thiệu Trị the release of five imprisoned missionaries.[15]
In 1843, the French Foreign Minister,François Guizot, sent a fleet to the East under AdmiralJean-Baptiste Cécille and CaptainCharner, together with the diplomatLagrene.[15] The move responded to the successes of theBritish in China in 1842, and France hoped to counterbalance these successes by accessing China from the south. The pretext however was to support British efforts in China, and to fight the persecution of French missionaries in Vietnam.[18]
In 1845, Cécille was dispatched to Vietnam in order to obtain the release of BishopDominique Lefèbvre, who had been condemned to death (the request for the intervention of the French Navy had been transmitted to Cécille by CaptainJohn Percival of theUSSConstitution).[15][19]
In 1847, Cécille sent two warships (Gloire andVictorieuse) under Captains Lapierre andCharles Rigault de Genouilly toĐà Nẵng (Tourane) in Vietnam to obtain the liberation of two imprisoned French missionaries, Bishop Dominique Lefèbvre (imprisoned for a second time as he had re-entered Vietnam secretly) and Duclos, and freedom of worship for Catholics in Vietnam.[20][21] As negotiations drew on without results, on April 15, 1847, a fight named theBombardment of Đà Nẵng erupted between the French fleet and Vietnamese ships, four Vietnamese ships were sunk as a result. The French fleet then sailed away.[20]
In 1858,Charles Rigault de Genouilly attacked Vietnam under the orders ofNapoleon III following the failed mission of diplomatCharles de Montigny. His stated mission was to stop the persecution of Catholic missionaries in the country and assure the unimpeded propagation of the faith.[22] Rigault de Genouilly, with 14 French gunships, 3,000 men and 300 Filipino troops provided by the Spanish,[23] attacked the port ofĐà Nẵng in 1858, causing significant damages, and occupying the city. After a few months, Rigault had to leave the city due to supply issues and illnesses.[22]
Sailing south, De Genouilly then accomplished theCapture of Saigon, a poorly defended city, on 18 February 1859. De Genouilly was criticized for his actions and was replaced by Admiral Page in November 1859, with instructions to obtain a treaty protecting the Roman Catholic faith in Vietnam, but not to try to obtain territorial gains.[22] Due to the resumption of fighting in China during theSecond Opium War, Admiral Page had to divert most of his force to China, to support AdmiralCharner there. In April 1860, Page was recalled to France and replaced by captain d’Aries.[24] The Franco-Spanish force in Saigon, now only numbering about 1,000, was besieged by about 10,000 Vietnamese forces from March 1860 to February 1861.[24] Finally, following the French victory in China at theBattle of Palikao, reinforcements of 70 ships under Admiral Charner and 3,500 soldiers under General Vassoigne were dispatched to Saigon, so that the French were able to defeat the besieging Vietnamese at the battle of Chin Hoa (Ky Hoa) on 25 February 1861.[25] Admiral Bonnard forced the entrance of theMekong river, and seizedMỹ Tho.[26]
On 13 April 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to negotiate and officially cede the territories ofBiên Hòa,Gia Định andĐịnh Tường to France in the 1862Treaty of Saigon, confirmed by theTreaty of Huế (1863).
An embassy was sent to France underPhan Thanh Giản in 1863, to try to recover the territories lost to France.[27] Although Napoleon III initially accepted Phan Thanh Giản's plea, the agreement was finally canceled in 1864, under pressure from Napoleon's cabinet led by the Minister of the Navy and the ColoniesChasseloup-Laubat.
In 1864, all the French territories in southern Vietnam were declared to be the new French colony ofCochinchina. In 1866, France started the exploration of theMekong river, with the objective of reaching the riches of China, underErnest Doudart de Lagrée andFrancis Garnier. They reached theYunnan, discovering that the Mekong was not navigable as far as China. They found out instead that theSong-Koï river inTonkin would be a good alternative.[28]
In 1867 the provinces ofChâu Đốc,Hà Tiên andVĩnh Long were added to French-controlled territory by Admiral La Grandière. Admiral Dupré became Governor of Cochinchina.[28] The Vietnamese Emperor formally recognized French dominion over Cochinchina in 1874, in the 1874Treaty of Saigon,[29] negotiated byPaul-Louis-Félix Philastre.
In 1873,Francis Garnier was put in charge of an expedition toTonkin, with the mission of protecting French interests there, following the troubles encountered by the French traderJean Dupuis.[28] Garnier disembarked inHanoi on 3 November 1873, but negotiations were not forthcoming. On November 20, Garnier made an assault of the Hanoi citadelle, and pacified the delta, with nine officers, 175 men and two gunboats.[28] TheBlack Flags resisted the French intrusion, entering into a guerrilla campaign that led to the killing of Garnier on 21 December 1873.[28]
In March 1882, CaptainHenri Rivière again visited Hanoi with three gunboats and 700 men in order to obtain a trade agreement. Following some provocations, Rivière captured Hanoi in April 1882. Again the Black Flags counter-attacked, and Rivière was killed in May 1883 in theBattle of Paper Bridge, leading to a huge movement in France in favour of a massive armed intervention.[30] Credits were voted for, and a large force of 4,000 men and 29 warships (including 4ironclads) was sent. AdmiralAmédée Courbet would be leading the force in Tonkin, while Admiral Meyer would operate in China.[30]
Following a failed ultimatum, on 18–19 August 1883, Courbet bombarded the forts of the capital ofHuế. The forts were occupied on the 20th. The gunboatsLynx andVipère reached the capital. On August 25, the Vietnamese court accepted to sign theTreaty of Hué (1883).[30] A French protectorate over the remaining of Vietnam (Annam andTonkin) was recognized through the treaty.[29][31][32]
The next objective of the French was to take full control of theTonkin. In October 1883, Courbet was placed in command of theTonkin Expeditionary Corps. In December 1883, he led theSơn Tây Campaign against theBlack Flags.[33] French casualties were heavy (83 dead and 320 wounded), but the Black Flags were greatly weakened as a result of the campaign.
TheBắc Ninh Campaign (March 1884) was one of a series of clashes between French and Chinese forces in Tonkin (northern Vietnam) in the period. The campaign, which lasted from 6 to 24 March, resulted in the French capture ofBắc Ninh and the complete defeat of China'sGuangxi Army.
China, the traditional overlord of Vietnam, kept contesting French influence in the area and was supporting Annam as well as the Black Flags on its territory at the frontier with Tonkin.[33] Although a treaty had been signed between France and China (11 May 1884 theTientsin Accord) promising Chinese evacuation from Tonkin, military confrontations continued as in theBắc Lệ ambush (June 1884). These tensions led to theSino-French War (1884–85), which ultimately forced China to totally disengage from Vietnam and confirmed the French possessions.
French Indochina was officially formed in October 1887 fromAnnam,Tonkin,Cochinchina (which together form modernVietnam) and theKingdom of Cambodia following theSino-French war (1884–1885).Jean Antoine Ernest Constans became the firstGovernor-General of French Indochina on 16 November 1887.Laos was added after theFranco-Siamese conflict of 1893.
Thefederation lasted until 1954. In the fourprotectorates, the French formally left the local rulers in power, who were theEmperors of Vietnam,Kings of Cambodia, andKings of Luang Prabang, but in fact gathered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only as heads.
France stayed in Indochina during World War II, tolerated by the Japanese Army.[34]
France |  North Vietnam |
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France |  South Vietnam |
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In 1945,Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of theDemocratic Republic of Vietnam, later recognized by communistChina and the Soviet Union in 1950, while theUnited States and other Western countries recognized theState of Vietnam. TheFirst Indochina War lasted until the1954 Geneva Conference, after theBattle of Điện Biên Phủ. This led to the partition of Vietnam into theNorth Vietnam andSouth Vietnam. It was at the Geneva Conference that marked the end of French involvement in the region, and France relinquished any claim to territory in the Indochinese peninsula. Laos and Cambodia also became independent in 1954, but were both drawn into theVietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War.
On 11 October 1972,United States Navy jets attacked theGia Lâm railway yard in Hanoi. An explosion in the French mission complex across theRed River and 3 miles (4.8 km) southwest of the railway yard severely injured chief diplomat Pierre Susini, who later died of his wounds. Five North Vietnamese employees of the mission were also killed. The French and North Vietnamese blamed the U.S., while the U.S. said the damage may have been caused by a fallingSA-2surface-to-air missile.[35]
France recognized North Vietnam and established diplomatic relations on 12 April 1973.[36]
In 1990,François Mitterrand became the firstFrench President to visit Vietnam in order to increase cooperation between France and its former colony. Since then, France has continued to maintain close relations with Vietnam, due to the historical connections between the two nations and Vietnam's presence in theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie.
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