| Fort Monroe | |
|---|---|
| Part ofHarbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay 1896–1945 | |
| Site information | |
| Type | Headquarters, garrison fort, training center |
| Owner | Federal, State, Local |
| Open to the public | Yes |
Fort Monroe National Monument | |
 Fort Monroe in 2004 | |
   | |
| Location | Hampton, Virginia |
| Coordinates | 37°00′13″N76°18′27″W / 37.00361°N 76.30750°W /37.00361; -76.30750 |
| Area | 565 acres (229 ha) |
| Built | 1819–1834 |
| Architect | Simon Bernard[2] |
| Architectural style | Third system fort[2] |
| Website | Fort Monroe National Monument |
| NRHP reference No. | 66000912[1] (original) 13000708 (increase) |
| VLR No. | 114-0002 |
| Significant dates | |
| Added to NRHP | October 15, 1966 |
| Boundary increase | March 9, 2015 |
| Designated NHLD | December 19, 1960[4] |
| Designated NMON | November 1, 2011[5] |
| Designated VLR | September 9, 1969[3] |
 | |
| Site history | |
| Built by | U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |
| In use | 1823–2011 |
| Materials | stone, brick, earth |
| Battles/wars | American Civil War World War I World War II |
Fort Monroe is a former military installation inHampton, Virginia, atOld Point Comfort, the southern tip of theVirginia Peninsula, United States. It is currently managed by partnership between the Fort Monroe Authority for the Commonwealth of Virginia, the National Park Service, and the city of Hampton as theFort Monroe National Monument. Along withFort Wool, Fort Monroe originally guarded the navigation channel between theChesapeake Bay andHampton Roads—the naturalroadstead at the confluence of theElizabeth, theNansemond and theJames rivers.
Until disarmament in 1946, the areas protected by the fort were the entire Chesapeake Bay and Potomac River regions, including the water approaches to the cities of Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland, along with important shipyards and naval bases in the Hampton Roads area. Surrounded by amoat, the six-sidedbastion fort is the largest fort by area ever built in the United States.[6]
During the initial exploration by a mission headed by CaptainChristopher Newport in the early 1600s, the earliest days of theColony of Virginia, the site was identified as a strategic defensive location. Beginning by 1609, defensive fortifications were built atOld Point Comfort during Virginia's first two centuries. The first was a wooden stockade named Fort Algernourne, followed by other small forts.[7][8] However, the much more substantial facility of stone that became known as Fort Monroe (and adjacent Fort Wool on an artificial island across the channel) were completed in 1834, as part of thethird system of U.S. fortifications. The principal fort was named in honor ofU.S. presidentJames Monroe.[9]
Although Virginia became part of theConfederate States of America, Fort Monroe remained inUnion hands throughout theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865).Union General George B. McClellan landed theArmy of the Potomac at the fort duringPeninsula campaign of 1862 of that conflict. The fort was notable as a historic and symbolic site of early freedom for formerslaves under the provisions ofcontraband policies.
For two years following the war, the former Confederate president,Jefferson Davis, was imprisoned at the fort. His first months of confinement were spent in a cell of thecasemated fort walls that is now part of itsCasemate Museum.
Around the turn of the 20th century, numerous gun batteries were added in and near Fort Monroe under theEndicott program; it became the largest fort and headquarters of theHarbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay.[8] In the 19th and 20th centuries it housed artillery schools, including theCoast Artillery School (1907–1946). TheContinental Army Command (CONARC) (1955–1973) headquarters was at Fort Monroe, succeeded by theUnited States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) following a division of CONARC into TRADOC andUnited States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) in 1973. CONARC was responsible for all active Army units in thecontinental United States. TRADOC was headquartered at the fort from 1973 until it was moved to Fort Eustis in 2011.[10]
Fort Monroe was deactivated September 15, 2011,[11] and many of its functions were transferred to nearbyFort Eustis. Several re-use plans for Fort Monroe are under development in the Hampton community. On November 1, 2011, PresidentBarack Obama signed a proclamation to designate portions of Fort Monroe as anational monument. This was the first time that President Obama exercised his authority under theAntiquities Act, a 1906 law to protect sites deemed to have natural, historical or scientific significance.[5]
Within the 565 acres (229 ha) of Fort Monroe are 170 historic buildings and nearly 200 acres (81 ha) of natural resources, including 8 miles (13 km) of waterfront, 3.2 miles (5 km) of beaches on theChesapeake Bay, 110 acres (45 ha) of submerged lands and 85 acres (34 ha) of wetlands. It has a 332-slip marina and shallow water inlet access to Mill Creek, suitable for small watercraft.[12]
The land area where Fort Monroe is became part ofElizabeth Cittie [sic] in 1619,Elizabeth River Shire in 1634, and was included inElizabeth City County when it was formed in 1643. Over 300 years later, in 1952, Elizabeth City County and the nearbyTown of Phoebus agreed to consolidate with the smallerindependent city ofHampton, which became one of the larger cities ofHampton Roads.[13]
Arriving with three ships under CaptainChristopher Newport, CaptainJohn Smith and the colonists of theVirginia Company established the settlement ofJamestown as part of the Englishcolony of Virginia on theJames River in 1607. On their initial exploration, they recognized the strategic importance of the site atOld Point Comfort for purposes of coastal defense. They initially builtFort Algernourne (1609–1622) at the location of the present Fort Monroe. It was renamed the Point Comfort Fort in 1612.[7] It is assumed to have been a triangular stockade, based on the fort at Jamestown. Other small forts known as Fort Henry and Fort Charles were built nearby in 1610 to protect theKecoughtan settlement.[14] Fort Algernourne fell into disuse after 1622.[7]
In August 1619, the English-owned and Dutch-flaggedprivateerWhite Lion appeared off Old Point Comfort. Her cargo includedbetween 20-30 Africans captured from the Portugueseslave shipSão João Bautista. Traded to local English colonists in exchange for work and supplies, they were the first Africans to come ashore in what would become theThirteen Colonies and later the U.S. The arrival of theseBantu people fromAngola is considered to mark the beginning ofslavery in colonial America.[15]
Another fort, known only as "the fort at Old Point Comfort" was constructed in 1632. In 1728,Fort George was built on the site. Its masonry walls were destroyed by a hurricane in 1749, but the wooden buildings in the fort were used by a reduced force from circa 1755 until at least 1775. During theAmerican Revolutionary War, as Franco-American forces approached Yorktown in 1781, British forces established batteries on the ruins of Fort George. Shortly afterward, during thesiege of Yorktown, the French West Indian fleet occupied these batteries. Throughout the Colonial period, fortifications were manned at the location from time to time.[7]
Following theWar of 1812, the United States realized the need to protect Hampton Roads and the inland waters from attack by sea.A British attack on Norfolk and Portsmouth was repulsed, but they then bypassed the existing fortifications and went on toburn Washington, D.C., and unsuccessfullyattack Baltimore. In March 1819, PresidentJames Monroe'sWar Department came up with a plan of building a network of coastal defenses, later called thethird system of U.S. fortifications. In 1822 construction began in earnest[16] on the stone-and-brick fort which would become the safeguard for Chesapeake Bay and the largest fort by area ever built in the United States.[7] It was intended as the headquarters for the third system of forts.[17] Among the original buildings isQuarters 1, designed as a residence and headquarters for Fort Monroe's commanding officer.[18] Work continued for nearly 25 years.[19]
The fort was designed by brevet Brigadier General of engineersSimon Bernard, formerly a French brigadier general of engineers and aide toNapoleon, who had been banished fromFrance after the latter's defeat atWaterloo in 1815, moved to the United States, and later commissioned as a brigadier general in theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers.[20] From the beginning of its construction until 1832 the fort's name was "Fortress Monroe", and it was sometimes referred to by that name subsequently.[7]
Fort Monroe was the first of the third system forts to begin construction, and was intended as a headquarters for the system as well as a fort. It is abastion fort with an irregular hexagon shape and seven bastions. The southern and longest front is divided in two fronts by a bastion in the middle; the other bastions are at the corners. The fort is surrounded by amoat and covers 63 acres (25 ha). At the time it was built, the only land access to the fort's location was via a long, narrowisthmus to the north. Aredoubt with a secondary moat was built northeast of the fort to guard against attack from this direction; the redoubt no longer exists, but the water gate for the secondary moat remains. The fort has a continuousbarbette tier of cannon emplacements on the roof, but only a partialcasemated tier in the fort, mainly on the southwestern and southern fronts. No positions for casemated flankhowitzers exist on the northern and northwestern fronts (except two alongside the northsally port); this partial tier is unusual in the third system.[2] The main channel the fort protected was to the southeast; a casemated external battery (also called a "casemated coverface" or "water battery") of forty 42 pounds (19 kg)cannon[21] was built just outside the moat in this area.[2] This increased the number of cannon in this direction compared with casemated guns in thecurtain wall from 28 to 40; it was accessed from the main fort via a bridge. As of 2018, only a small part of the external battery's north end remains, along with a salientplace-of-arms just north of it with three gun positions.[2] The fort's walls were up to 10 feet (3 m) thick and the moat was 8 feet (2 m) deep. The initial design provided for up to 380 guns and was later expanded to 412 guns, intended for a garrison of 600 troops in peacetime and up to 2,625 troops in wartime. However, the fort was never fully armed.[8]
The site of Fort Monroe was first garrisoned in June 1823 by Battery G of the3rd U.S. Artillery Regiment[8] commanded by CaptainMann P. Lomax.
As a young first lieutenant and engineer in the U.S. Army,Robert E. Lee was stationed at the fort from 1831 to 1834 and played a major role in its final construction and its opposite, Fort Calhoun (renamedFort Wool in 1862). He resided atQuarters 17.[22] Fort Calhoun was built on aman-made island called theRip Raps across the navigation channel fromOld Point Comfort in the middle of the mouth of Hampton Roads.[23] The Army briefly detained the Native American chieftainBlack Hawk at Fort Monroe, following the 1832 Black Hawk War.
When construction was completed in 1834, Fort Monroe was referred to as the "Gibraltar of Chesapeake Bay." The fort mounted an impressive complement of powerful artillery: 42 pounds (19 kg)cannon with a range of over 1 mile (2 km). In conjunction with Fort Calhoun (later Fort Wool), this was just enough range to cover the main shipping channel into the area. (Decommissioned afterWorld War II, the former Fort Wool onRip Raps is now adjacent to the southern man-made island of theHampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, first completed in 1957.)
From 1824 to 1946 Fort Monroe was the site of a series of schools of artillery. The first was theArtillery School of Practice. The school was closed in 1834 but was revived during the period 1858–61. It was succeeded by theArtillery School of the U.S. Army, which existed from 1867 until its redesignation in 1907 as theCoast Artillery School. Fort Monroe also hosted the Old Point Comfort Proving Ground for testing artillery and ammunition from the 1830s to 1861; after the Civil War this function relocated to theSandy Hook Proving Ground in New Jersey.[7]
Fort Monroe played an important role in theAmerican Civil War. On December 20, 1860,South Carolina became the first state to secede from theUnion. Four months later, on April 12, 1861, troops of that state opened fire onFort Sumter inCharleston Harbor. Five days later, Virginia's legislature passed (subject to voters' ratification) theOrdinance of Secession of Virginia to withdraw from the Union and join the newly formedConfederate States of America. On 23 May 1861, voters of Virginia ratified the state's secession from the union.
PresidentAbraham Lincoln had Fort Monroe quickly reinforced so that it would not fall to Confederate forces. It was held by Union forces throughout the Civil War, which launched several sea and land expeditions from there.
A few weeks after theBattle of Fort Sumter in 1861, U.S. Army General-in-ChiefWinfield Scott proposed to President Abraham Lincoln a plan to bring the states back into the Union: Cut the Confederacy off from the rest of the world instead of attacking its army in Virginia. HisAnaconda Plan was toblockade or occupy the Confederacy's coastline to limit the activity ofblockade runners, and control theMississippi River valley with gunboats. In cooperation with the Navy, troops from Fort Monroe extended Union control along the coasts ofthe Carolinas as Lincoln ordered a blockade of the southern seaboard from the South Carolina line to theRio Grande on April 19 and, on April 27, extended it to include theNorth Carolina and Virginia coasts.
On April 20 the Union Navy burned and evacuated theGosport Navy Yard inPortsmouth, destroying nine ships in the process, keeping Fort Monroe at Old Point Comfort as the last bastion of the United States inTidewater Virginia. The Confederacy's occupation ofNorfolk gave it a major shipyard and thousands of heavy guns, but they held it for only one year. Confederate Brigadier GeneralWalter Gwynn, who commanded the Confederate defenses around Norfolk, erected batteries atSewell's Point, to protect Norfolk and to control Hampton Roads.
The Union dispatched a fleet to Hampton Roads to enforce the blockade. On May 18–19, 1861, Federal gunboats based at Fort Monroe exchanged fire with the Confederate batteries at Sewell's Point. The little-knownBattle of Sewell's Point resulted in minor damage to both sides. Several land operations against Confederate forces were mounted from the fort, notably theBattle of Big Bethel in June 1861.
On May 27, 1861, Major GeneralBenjamin Butler made his famous "contraband" decision, or "Fort Monroe Doctrine", determining that the enslaved men who reached Union lines would be considered "contraband of war" (captured enemy property) and not be returned to bondage. Prior to this, the Union had generally enforced theFugitive Slave Act, returning escaped slaves to their owners. The order resulted in thousands of slaves fleeing to Union lines around Fort Monroe, which was Butler's headquarters in Virginia. Fort Monroe became called "Freedom's Fortress", as any self-emancipating person reaching it would be free. In the Summer of 1861 Harry Jarvis made his way to Fort Monroe and insisted General Butler let him enlist. Butler refused because he believed "it wasn't a black man's war." Jarvis replied, "It would be a black man's war," due to the presence of the incoming of thousands of runaway slaves. This marked a sudden shift in the war.[24] In March 1862 Congress passeda law formalizing this policy. By the fall, the Army had built theGreat Contraband Camp in Hampton to house the families. It was the first of more than 100 that would be established by war's end, and theRoanoke Island Freedmen's Colony (1863–1867), which started as a contraband camp. Many contrabands were employed by the Union Army in support roles such as cooks, wagon drivers, and laborers. Beginning in January 1863, theUnited States Colored Troops were formed, with many contrabands enlisting; these units were composed primarily of white officers and African-American enlisted men, and eventually numbered nearly 180,000 soldiers.[25]
Mary S. Peake was teaching the children of freedmen to read and write near Fort Monroe. She was the first black teacher hired by theAmerican Missionary Association (AMA), a northern missionary group led by black and white ministers from theCongregational,Presbyterian andMethodist denominations, who strongly supported education of freedmen. Soon she was teaching children during the day and adults at night. The AMA sponsored hundreds of northern teachers and hired local teachers in the south; it founded more than 500 local schools and 11 colleges for freedmen and their children.
During the Civil War Fort Monroe was the site of a militaryballoon camp under the flight direction of aeronautJohn LaMountain. TheUnion Army Balloon Corps was being developed at Fort Corcoran near Arlington under the presidentially appointed Prof.Thaddeus S. C. Lowe. At the same time, LaMountain, who was vying for position as Chief Aeronaut, had gained the confidence of Butler in using his balloonAtlantic for aerial observations. LaMountain is credited with having made the first successful report from an aerial station that was of practicalmilitary intelligence. LaMountain was later reassigned to Lowe's balloon corps, but after a period of in-fighting with Lowe, he was released from military service. Lowe eventually assigned regular military balloons to Fort Monroe.
In 1861 the prototype 15-inchRodman gun was delivered to Fort Monroe and was subsequently fired 350 times in testing. This weapon (Fort Pitt Foundry No. 1 of 1861) is displayed at the fort as of 2018; a plaque states that it was test fired for President Lincoln and was nicknamed the "Lincoln gun". This type of weapon was deployed for coastal defense during the war (an 1862 map shows an external battery of them at Fort Monroe) and more widely deployed following the war.[26]
In March 1862, the navalBattle of Hampton Roads took place off Sewell's Point between two earlyironclad warships,CSSVirginia andUSSMonitor. While the outcome was inconclusive, the battle marked a change in naval warfare and the end to wooden fighting ships.
Later that spring, the continuing presence of the Union Navy based at Fort Monroe enabled federal water transports from Washington, D.C., to land unmolested to support Major GeneralGeorge B. McClellan'sPeninsula Campaign. Formed at Fort Monroe, McClellan's troops moved up theVirginia Peninsula during the spring of 1862, reaching within a few miles of the gates ofRichmond about 80 miles (129 km) to the west by June 1. For the next 30 days, they laid siege to Richmond. Then, during theSeven Days Battles, McClellan fell back to the James River well below Richmond, ending the campaign. Fortunately for McClellan, during this time, Union troops regained control of Norfolk, Hampton Roads, and the James River belowDrewry's Bluff (a strategic point about 8 miles (13 km) south of Richmond).
Beginning in 1862 Fort Monroe was also used as a transfer point for mail exchange. Mail sent from states in the Confederacy addressed to locations in the Union had to be sent by flag-of-truce and could only pass through at Fort Monroe where the mail was opened, inspected, resealed, marked and sent on.Prisoner of war mail from Union soldiers in Confederate prisons was required to be passed through this point for inspection.[27][28]
In 1864, the UnionArmy of the James under Major GeneralBenjamin Butler was formed at Fort Monroe. The2nd Regiment, United States Colored Cavalry, mustered in at Fort Monroe on December 22, 1864,[29] and the1st Regiment, United States Colored Cavalry mustered in the same day at nearby Camp Hamilton.[30] TheSiege of Petersburg during 1864 and 1865 was supported on the James River from a base atCity Point (nowHopewell, Virginia). Maintaining the control of Hampton Roads at Fort Monroe and Fort Wool was crucial to the naval support Grant required for the successful Union campaign to take Petersburg, which was the key to the fall of the Confederate capital at Richmond. As Petersburg fell, Richmond was evacuated in 1865 on the night of April 2–3. That night,Confederate PresidentJefferson Davis and his cabinet escaped Richmond, taking theRichmond and Danville Railroad to move first toDanville and thenNorth Carolina. However, the cause was lost, and Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered what was left of theArmy of Northern Virginia to Grant atAppomattox Court House the following week.
After the last Confederate cabinet meeting was held on April 26, 1865, atCharlotte, North Carolina, Jefferson Davis was captured atIrwinville,Georgia, and placed under arrest. Davis was confined for two years at Fort Monroe, beginning on May 22, 1865. For a few days he was confined in irons; newspaper accounts of this beginning on May 27 aroused sympathy for him, even in the North, and Unionsecretary of warEdwin M. Stanton soon ordered the irons removed. At the fort, Union surgeon John J. Craven had already recommended this, and continued to recommend better quarters, access to tobacco, and freedom of movement for Davis.[31] In poor health, Davis was released in May, 1867, on bail, which was posted by prominent citizens of both Northern and Southern states, includingHorace Greeley andCornelius Vanderbilt, who had become convinced he was being treated unfairly. The federal government proceeded no further in its prosecution due to the constitutional concerns ofU.S. Supreme Court Chief JusticeSalmon P. Chase. Davis died in 1889.
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TheJournal of the United States Artillery was founded at Fort Monroe in 1892 by First Lieutenant (later General)John Wilson Ruckman and four other officers of the Artillery School.[32] Ruckman served as the editor of theJournal for four years (July 1892 to January 1896) and published several articles therein afterward. One publication byWest Point notes Ruckman's "guidance" and "first-rate quality" work were obvious as theJournal "rose to high rank among the service papers of the world". TheJournal was renamed theCoast Artillery Journal in 1922[33] and theAntiaircraft Journal in 1948.[34]
TheBoard of Fortifications, chaired bySecretary of WarWilliam C. Endicott and often called the Endicott board, met in 1885 to consider the future of U.S. coast defenses. In 1886 the board's report recommended an across-the-board improvement program, often called the Endicott program. This included replacing all existing weapons with modern breech-loading guns and mortars inreinforced concrete batteries with earth cover and providingcontrolled minefields in ship channels.[35] Fort Monroe was to be one of the largest installations of this program, and in 1896 construction began on new gun batteries there. The fort was the headquarters and main fort of theCoast Defenses of Chesapeake Bay, which was organized circa 1896 as an artillery district and redesignated in 1913.[8][36]
By 1906 the following batteries were completed:[8][37]
| Name | No. of guns | Gun type | Carriage type | Years active | Condition in 2015 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anderson | 8 | 12-inch (305 mm) mortar M1890 | barbette M1896 | 1898–1943 | intact |
| Ruggles | 8 | 12-inch (305 mm) mortar M1890 | barbette M1896 | 1898–1943 | intact |
| De Russy | 3 | 12-inch (305 mm) gun M1895 | disappearing M1897 | 1904–1944 | intact, earthglacis removed |
| Parrott | 2 | 12-inch (305 mm) gun M1900 | disappearing M1901 | 1906–1943 | intact, 90 mm gun in place |
| Humphreys | 1 | 10-inch (254 mm) gun M1888 | disappearing M1894 | 1897–1910 | demolished |
| Eustis | 2 | 10-inch (254 mm) gun M1888 | disappearing M1896 | 1901–1942 | demolished |
| Church | 2 | 10-inch (254 mm) gun M1895 | disappearing M1896 | 1901–1942 | intact, earth glacis removed |
| Bomford | 2 | 10-inch (254 mm) gun M1888 | disappearing M1894 | 1897–1942 | demolished |
| Northeast bastion (experimental) | 1 | 10-inch (254 mm) gun M1896 | disappearing M1894 | 1900–1908 | intact |
| Barber | 1 | 8-inch (203 mm) gun M1888 | barbette M1892 | 1898–1913 | demolished |
| Parapet | 2 | 8-inch (203 mm) gun M1888 | barbette M1892 | 1898–1915 | mostly buried |
| Montgomery | 2 | 6-inch (152 mm) gun M1900 | pedestal M1900 | 1904–1948 | demolished |
| Gatewood | 4 | 4.72-inch Armstrong gun | pedestal | 1898–1914 | mostly buried |
| Irwin | 4 | 3-inch (76 mm) gun M1898 | masking parapet M1898 | 1903–1920 | intact, two3-inch M1902 guns in place |
Battery Gatewood and the northeast bastion battery were built on the roof of the old fort's southeastern front and bastion; the parapet battery was on the roof of the eastern half of the old fort's southern side. The parapet battery had four emplacements, but only two of these had guns.[38] Batteries Bomford and Barber were north of the old fort. Battery Humphreys was immediately northeast of the old fort and oriented southeast.[39] Batteries Irwin and Parrott were in front of the old fort's southern side. The remaining batteries were on the isthmus extending north from the old fort in this order: Eustis, De Russy, Montgomery, Church, Anderson/Ruggles. Batteries Anderson and Ruggles were a line of four open-back mortar pits, originally with four mortars in each pit. Battery Anderson was the southern pair of pits and Battery Ruggles was the northern pair. Originally all four pits were named Anderson, but they were divided into two batteries in 1906.[8][40][41]
Battery Gatewood and the parapet battery were among a number of batteries begun after the outbreak of theSpanish–American War in 1898. Most of the Endicott batteries were years from completion, and most existing defenses still had muzzle-loading weapons. It was feared that the Spanish fleet might bombard U.S.east coast ports. Modern quick-firing guns were acquired from the United Kingdom and installed in new batteries. Battery Gatewood had four 4.72-inch/50caliber guns while the parapet battery had four platforms for 8-inch M1888 guns with only two guns mounted.[42][43] The northeast bastion battery was built to test an experimental 10-inch M1896 "depressing gun"; the battery was disarmed in 1908.[44] Battery Humphreys was disarmed in 1910; batteries Barber, Gatewood, and the parapet battery were disarmed in 1913–1915.[8]
Fire control towers todirect the use of guns and mines were also built at the fort.[7][8]
During the Spanish–American War Fort Monroe also hosted the Camp Josiah Simpson Army General Hospital, including the post hospital and a tent camp on the old fort's parade ground.[7]
TheJamestown Exposition, held in 1907 atHampton Roads, featured an extensivenaval review, including theGreat White Fleet. Beginning in 1917, the former exposition site atSewell's Point became a major base of theUnited States Navy. Currently,Naval Station Norfolk is the base supporting naval forces operating in theAtlantic Ocean,Mediterranean Sea, andIndian Ocean. As of 2018, it is the world's largest naval station by number of military members supported.
DuringWorld War I, Fort Monroe andFort Wool were used to protect Hampton Roads and the important inland military and civilian resources of the Chesapeake Bay area as part of theCoast Defenses of Chesapeake Bay. The fort installed the firstanti-submarine net in America in February 1917 stretching to Fort Wool. This barrier helped protect the entrance to Hampton Roads during the first World War.[45] Although many guns were removed from coast defenses in World War I for potential service asfield guns andrailway artillery, this did not happen with most weapons at Fort Monroe due to its strategic importance. However, eight mortars were removed from Battery Anderson-Ruggles for potential overseas service and to improve the rate of fire of the remaining weapons; five of the removed mortars became railway artillery in France; it is unclear if they were used in action.[41][46] Battery Montgomery's pair of pedestal-mounted6-inch (152 mm) guns were relocated to a temporary battery atCape Henry in 1917; they were replaced with weapons of the same type in February 1919.[47] Fort Monroe also served as an important as a mobilization and training center. Units from theCoast Artillery Corps operated heavy artillery and railway guns on theWestern Front.[48] In 1918Camp Eustis (now Fort Eustis) was established near Newport News as a coast artillery replacement center to relieve overcrowding at Fort Monroe.[49] During World War I the authorized strength of the Coast Defenses of Chesapeake Bay was 17 companies, including five from theVirginia National Guard.[50][51]
In 1922 Fort Monroe's importance in defending Chesapeake Bay was somewhat reduced with the establishment of a battery of four16-inch (406 mm) howitzers atFort Story onCape Henry, at the entrance to the bay. With the improved weapon location and a range advantage over Fort Monroe's 12-inch guns of 24,500 yards (22,400 m) versus 18,400 yards (16,800 m), the 16-inch weapons could engage attacking warships long before they could come within range of Fort Monroe.[52][53] In 1920 Battery Irwin's four 3-inch (76 mm) guns were removed as part of a general removal from service of M1898 3-inch guns; they were not replaced until 1946, when the battery became a saluting battery.[54] In 1924 the Coast Artillery Corps' harbor defense garrisons transitioned from a company-based organization to a regimental organization. The Harbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay (as renamed in 1925) were garrisoned by the12th Coast Artillery Regiment of theregular army,[55] with the246th Coast Artillery Regiment as theVirginia National Guard component.[56] In 1932 the 12th Coast Artillery was effectively redesignated as the2nd Coast Artillery, continuing as the garrison of Chesapeake Bay.[57]
DuringWorld War II, Fort Monroe continued as headquarters for theHarbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay. However, during the war new16-inch (406 mm) gun batteries were built at Fort Story and atFort John Custis onCape Charles.[58] These rendered Fort Monroe's heavy guns obsolete, and between 1942 and 1944 all of the fort's 10-inch (254 mm) and 12-inch (305 mm) guns and mortars were scrapped. However, the two rapid-fire 6-inch (152 mm) guns of Battery Montgomery remained until 1948. A 16-inch (406 mm) gun battery of two guns (Battery 124) was proposed for Fort Monroe but not built. A new Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat (AMTB) battery (AMTB 23) was built in 1943, with two fixed, dual-purpose (anti-surface and anti-aircraft)90 mm guns at the old Battery Parrott, which was partly rebuilt to accommodate them.[8] This type of battery was usually authorized two fixed and two mobile 90 mm guns and two 37 mm or 40 mm guns, but it is unclear where the additional weapons were located. In addition, submarine barriers and underwater mine fields continued to be controlled from Fort Monroe. But by the end of the Second World War, the vast array of armaments guarding the Chesapeake was made largely obsolete due to the development of the long-range bomber and the refinement of naval aviation. Essentially all of the United States' coast defense guns were scrapped by the end of 1948.[59]
Since World War II, Fort Monroe has been a major Army training headquarters. However, in 1946 the Coast Artillery School relocated toFort Winfield Scott in San Francisco, where it was disestablished in 1949; the remnant of the Coast Artillery Corps was also disestablished a year later.[7] Also in 1946 Battery Irwin became a saluting battery with two3-inch M1902 guns relocated from Fort Wool, which are still in place.[8] The fort also hosted someCold War antiaircraft defenses in the 1950s; a battery of four 90 mm guns 1953–55 (site N-03) and aNike missile battery headquarters 1955–60 (site N-08).[7] TheContinental Army Command (CONARC) headquarters was at Fort Monroe throughout its existence from 1955 to 1973. CONARC was responsible for all active Army units in thecontinental United States, and in 1973 was split into theUnited States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) and theUnited States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC). The latter command was headquartered at the fort from 1973 until the fort's decommissioning in 2011.[10] At the turn of the 21st century, Fort Monroe supported a work population of some 3,000, including 1,000 people in uniform.[citation needed]
In 1822 the Hygeia Hotel was built to accommodate some of the fort's builders. It eventually expanded to 200 rooms. In 1862 it was torn down by orders of the Secretary of War to limit civilian access to the post in wartime. It was replaced with a hotel of the same name after the war, and in 1874 became managed byHarrison Phoebus, for whom the city ofPhoebus was named following his death in 1886. The second Hygeia Hotel was torn down in 1902 to make room for the fort's expansion undera new fortifications program. By this time theChamberlin Hotel (built 1896) was in business; this building burned down and was replaced with the current building in 1928.[60] It now serves as a retirement community for those 55 years and older.
In 1907 the Coast Artillery School was established along with theU.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps. New buildings were constructed for classrooms and barracks, with the library and school buildings completed in 1909.[61] As part of the school's responsibility theJournal of the United States Artillery (renamedCoast Artillery Journal in 1922) was published under the supervision of the commandant.[33] The school operated until 1946 when most of the coast artillery was disbanded, and the school was moved toFort Winfield Scott in San Francisco.
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| Image | Rank | Name | Begin date | End date | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Lieutenant colonel | Ramsay D. PottsRamsay D. Potts | 1904-02-2222 February 1904 | 1906-08-1111 August 1906 | [a] |
 | Lieutenant colonel | George F. E. HarrisonGeorge F. E. Harrison | 1906-10-2424 October 1906 | 1909-1-1414 January 1909 | [a] |
 | Lieutenant colonel | Clarence P. TownsleyClarence Page Townsley | 1909-02-066 February 1909 | 1911-09-077 September 1911 | [a] |
 | Lieutenant colonel | Frederick S. StrongFrederick S. Strong | 1911-09-088 September 1911 | 1913-02-2727 February 1913 | [a] |
 | Colonel | Ira A. HaynesIra A. Haynes | 1913-02-1818 February 1913 | 1916-10-1616 October 1916 | [a] |
 | Colonel | Stephen M. FooteStephen M. Foote | 1916-10-011 October 1916 | 1917-08-2323 August 1917 | [a] |
 | Colonel | John A. LundeenJohn A. Lundeen | 1917-08-2323 August 1917 | 1918-03-3030 March 1918 | [a] |
 | Colonel | Frank K. FergussonFrank K. Fergusson | 1918-03-3030 March 1918 | 1918-09-1111 September 1918 | [a] |
 | Colonel | Robert R. WelshimerRobert R. Welshimer | 1918-09-088 September 1918 | 1919-01-2929 January 1919 | [a] |
 | Colonel | Eugene ReyboldEugene Reybold | 1919-01-2929 January 1919 | 1920-01-1919 January 1920 | [a] |
| Colonel | Jacob C. JohnsonJacob C. Johnson | 1920-01-1919 January 1920 | 1920-11-033 November 1920 | [a] | |
 | Colonel | Richmond P. DavisRichmond P. Davis | 1921-04-2828 April 1921 | 1922-12-2828 December 1922 | [a] |
 | Brigadier General | William Ruthven SmithWilliam Ruthven Smith | 1923-01-1111 January 1923 | 1924-12-2020 December 1924 | [a] |
 | Brigadier General | Robert Emmet CallanRobert Emmet Callan | 1924-12-2020 December 1924 | 1929-06-033 June 1929 | [a] |
 | Brigadier General | Henry D. Todd Jr.Henry D. Todd Jr. | 1929-08-2828 August 1929 | 1930-08-3131 August 1930 | [a] |
 | Brigadier General | Stanley Dunbar EmbickStanley Dunbar Embick | 1930-10-011 October 1930 | 1932-04-2525 April 1932 | [a] |
 | Brigadier General | Joseph P. TracyJoseph P. Tracy | 1932-08-3131 August 1932 | 1936-12-011 December 1936 | [a] |
 | Brigadier General | John W, GulickJohn W. Gulick | 1937-01-033 January 1937 | 1938-10-1212 October 1938 | [a] |
| Brigadier General | Frederick H. SmithFrederick H. Smith | 1938-11-2121 November 1938 | 1940-10-011 October 1940 | [a] | |
| Brigadier General | Frank S. ClarkFrank S. Clark | 1940-10-1010 October 1940 | 1942-01-1515 January 1942 | [a] | |
| Brigadier General | Lawrence B. WeeksLawrence B. Weeks | 1943-02-1815 January 1942 | 19445-10-011 October 1945 | [a] | |
 | Brigadier General | Robert T. FrederickRobert T. Frederick | 1945-11-011 November 1945 | 1947-08-1919 August 1947 | [a] |
The2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission of theDepartment of Defense released a list on 13 May 2005 of military installations recommended for closure or realignment, among which was Fort Monroe. The list was approved by PresidentGeorge W. Bush on 15 September 2005 and submitted toCongress. Congress failed to act within 45 legislative days to disapprove the list in its entirety, and the BRAC recommendations subsequently became law. Installations on the BRAC list were required by law to close within six years, and Fort Monroe ceased to be an Army post in 2011. Many of its functions were transferred to nearbyFort Eustis, which was named for Fort Monroe's first commander, GeneralAbraham Eustis, a notedartillery expert.
Fort Monroe has become a popular historical site. The Casemate Museum, opened in 1951, depicts the history of Fort Monroe and Old Point Comfort, with special emphasis on theCivil War period. It offers a view of Confederate PresidentJefferson Davis' prison cell. Also shown are the quarters occupied by 1st Lt.Robert E. Lee in 1831–34, and the quarters where PresidentAbraham Lincoln was a guest in May 1862. Most of the other historic officers' quarters and other buildings are also preserved. A uniform of the American writerEdgar Allan Poe, who was stationed there in 1828 serving as an artillery regimental command sergeant major, is also on display.
Several historic weapons were preserved at the fort as of 2005. The 15-inchRodman prototype "Lincoln gun" was on the parade. A90 mm gun on a dual-purpose coast defense mount remained at Battery Parrott, and two3-inch M1902 seacoast guns remained at Battery Irwin as of 2015.[62] A75 mm gun (nicknamed a "French 75" and used by the field artillery in World War I through early World War II) was at the new officers' club in the northern part of the reservation in 2005. The fort's lastfire control tower was demolished in late 2001.[7] Batteries Irwin, Parrott, De Russy, the northeast bastion battery, and Battery Anderson/Ruggles are intact as of 2018, though the seaward earth cover has been removed from some of them.[8]
The Fort Monroe Federal Area Development Authority (FMFADA) (renamed the Fort Monroe Authority as of 2019)[63] was established in 2007 by legislative action of the Virginia General Assembly as a public body corporate and as a political subdivision of the Commonwealth of Virginia, to serve as the official Local Redevelopment Authority (LRA) recognized by the Department of Defense. The task of the FMFADA commission was to study, plan, and recommend the best use of the resources that remain when the Army closed the fort in September 2011. The Fort Monroe Reuse Plan was officially adopted August 2008.[64] The FMFADA relies on the expertise of national consultants in the areas of BRAC law, environmental engineering, historic architecture and preservation planning, structural engineering, housing market analysis, commercial/retail analysis, public relations/marketing, and tourism planning.
TheVirginia Department of Historic Resources and the Department of Environmental Quality have major regulatory authority that influences the work. The state took a lead role in planning because most of the land that Fort Monroe occupies will revert to the Commonwealth when the Army closes the fort. The effort was guided by three priorities—keep Fort Monroe open to the public, respect the rich history, and advance economic sustainability.
The Authority is an 18-member body consisting of appointees from the city of Hampton, the Virginia House of Delegates and Senate and the Virginia governor's cabinet, with two specialists in historic preservation and heritage tourism.
Virginia historically has given local government strong consideration in determining disposition at that point, such as occurred atFort Pickett inNottoway County (nearBlackstone) in theSouthside region. Given the historic significance of the post, the decommissioned fort will be a good candidate for heritage tourism along with many other historical sites throughout the greaterHampton Roads area. Redevelopment to help offset the economic loss of a base closure is a priority.
Fort Monroe is a National Historic Landmark and the moated fort and the 190 historic buildings on Old Point Comfort will be protected with historic preservation design guidelines for reuse. Old Point Comfort is prime development property and some mixed used new construction will be allowed within strict guidelines. For example, before the Army left, the historic Chamberlin Hotel had already been beautifully renovated as a community ofretirement apartments.
The National Park Service and the Fort Monroe FADA have been communicating to identify the best way to achieve a partnership and the park service presented several options.[65] In 2013, GovernorBob McDonnell approved a new master plan to revitalize the site and theNational Trust for Historic Preservation cited the site as one of ten historic sites saved that year.[66] By August 2014 only two businesses had moved in.[67]
Fort Monroe Authority operates leases for commercial properties and residences at the former post. Currently, homes are only available to lease.
There are several businesses now operating at Fort Monroe, including Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), a YMCA, three restaurants and a brewery. The Fort Monroe Authority also oversees event rentals to the public at the Commander General's house and the bandstand.
The beaches are open to the public. The main general parking is located at Outlook Beach.
On November 1, 2011,PresidentBarack Obama signed a proclamation to designate portions of Fort Monroe as anational monument. This was the first time that President Obama exercised his authority under theAntiquities Act, a 1906 law to protect sites deemed to have natural, historical or scientific significance.[5]
Fort Monroe National Monument released its finalized foundation document in 2015.[68] The National Park Service works with the Fort Monroe Authority on programming and maintenance.
Eola Lewis Dance is the Acting Superintendent,[69] supported by Ranger Aaron Firth. Terry E. Brown (2016–2020) and Kirsten Talken-Spaulding (2011–2016) also have served as Fort Monroe Superintendents.
A Visitors and Education Center[70] has been developed in the former Coast Artillery School Library, and is located at 30 Ingalls Road, next to the former Post Office that houses the offices for the Fort Monroe Authority. The building was designed by architect Francis B. Wheaton.
The building had a soft opening in 2019 and opened, briefly, to the public in 2020. Its grand opening has been put on hold during the pandemic. The center houses exhibits that focus on the history of the fort. It also features public restrooms, a bookstore and, on the second level, archives.
New walking tour markers and a brochure have been developed to help visitors better navigate the inner and outer fort.
Fort Monroe is noted as the location of the arrival of the first Africans to English-speaking North America. It was recorded "20 and odd" enslaved Africans were brought to Point Comfort, Virginia, in August 1619 on the White Lion. The enslaved were traded for provisions and marked the beginning of slavery in the colony.[71]
In 2019, Fort Monroe hosted multiple programs associated with commemorating African arrival in 1619.[72] The 400th anniversary was marked by a Day of Healing and Nationwide Bell Ringing.[citation needed] One of the lives focused on during the commemoration was that ofAngela, an enslaved woman owned by William Peirce.[73]
A memorial to the African Landing is currently being designed by the Fort Monroe Authority.
Fort Monroe was designated as a Site of Memory with UNESCO's Slave Route Project in February 2021.[74]
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to theKöppen Climate Classification system, Fort Monroe has ahumid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.[75]
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