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A number ofstates andpolities formerly claimed colonies and territories in Canada prior tothe evolution of thecurrent provinces and territories under the federal system.[1]North America prior to colonization was occupied by a variety ofindigenous groups consisting ofband societies typical of the sparsely populatedNorth, to looseconfederacies made up of numerous hunting bands from a variety of ethnic groups (Plains region), to more structured confederacies of sedentary farming villages (Great Lakes region), to stratified hereditary structures centred on a fishing economy (Plateau and Pacific Coast regions).[2] The colonization ofCanada by Europeans began in the 10th century, whenNorsemen explored and, ultimately unsuccessfully, attempted to settle areas of the northeastern fringes of North America.[3] Early permanent European settlements in what is now Canada included the late 16th and 17th century French colonies ofAcadia andCanada (New France),[4] the English colonies ofNewfoundland andRupert's Land,[5] the Scottish colonies ofNova Scotia andPort Royal.[6]
France lost nearly all ofits colonies in North America in 1763 after theSeven Years' War to theBritish Empire.[7]Britain's imperial government over a century later then ceded the land toCanadian control in 1867 afterconfederation.[8] Since then,Canada's external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces to ten provinces and three territories by 1999.[9]
Indigenous peoples in what is now Canada did not formstate societies and, in the absence of state structures, academics usually classify indigenous people by their traditional "lifeway" (or primary economic activity) and ecological/climatic region into "culture areas", or by theirlanguage families.[10]
TheMi'kmaq in today'sMaritimes were governed as seven separate "districts" with their owndistrict chiefs and councils coordinated by theGrand Council meeting yearly onCape Breton Island. Following their first conflict with the British invaders (King Philip's War) in 1677, the Mi'kmaq joined the widerWabanaki Confederacy, an alliance with four otherAlgonquian-language nations: theAbenaki,Penobscot,Passamaquoddy, andMaliseet.[note 1][11] To the west around the Great Lakes, theCouncil of Three Fires was formed in 796 AD between theOjibwa,Odawa and thePotawatomi, according tooral history.[12] The five (later six) tribes of theIroquois Confederacy were united in 1142 AD, according to their oral traditions.[13][14] There were also the four or possibly five tribes of theHuron Confederacy,[15] both in theGreat Lakes region.
TheBlackfoot Confederacy in present-dayAlberta and neighbouringMontana originally consisted of three dialect groups of the same language (Peigan, Kainai, and Siksika)[note 2] but they were later joined the completely unrelatedSarcee people. TheIron Confederacy of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan consisted of numerous bands of mixedPlains Cree,Assiniboine, andSaulteaux people.
TheIndigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast andpeoples of the Northwest Plateau developed highly structured cultures from relatively dense populations. Some cultures in this region were very similar and share certain elements, such as the importance of fishing to their communities.[16]
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Former European colonies and territories in Canada range from areas that were once under French and British control to territories that were formally part of theBritish Empire. The French controlledNew France, a region around theGreat Lakes Waterway,Mississippi River System and parts of theMaritime Provinces ofNew Brunswick,Nova Scotia, andPrince Edward Island, until theTreaty of Paris in 1763 when it was ceded to the British. Modern dayManitoba,Saskatchewan, andAlberta were part ofRupert's Land and theNorth-Western Territory, which were controlled by theHudson's Bay Company before becoming part of theCanadian Confederation in 1870.Newfoundland and Labrador was oncea British colony before joining the Canadian Confederation in 1949. After theOregon boundary dispute between the UK and US government was resolved in 1846, thecolonies of Vancouver Island andcolony of British Columbia were established; the former in 1849 and the latter in 1858. The two colonies were merged to form asingle colony in 1866, which later joined the Canadian Confederation on 20 July 1871.[17]
While the Norse colonies in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years, the continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into permanent colonies.[18]Vinland,Markland andHelluland are the names given to three lands, possibly in Canada, discovered by Norsemen as described in theEiríks saga rauða[19] andGrœnlendinga saga.[20]
Based on theTreaty of Tordesillas thePortuguese Crown claimed it had territorial rights in theAtlantic waters visited by explorerJohn Cabot in 1497 and 1498.[22] In 1498 to 1500, the Portuguese marinerJoão Fernandes Lavrador visited the north Atlantic coast, accounting for the appearance of the name "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.[23] In 1501 and 1502,Miguel andGaspar Corte-Real explored present dayNewfoundland, claiming the land in the name of Portuguese Empire.[24] The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear and controversial, but it is generally accepted that explorerJoao Álvarez Fagundes attempted to establish a seasonal fishing colony. It is not known exactly where and for how long the fishing post existed,[24][25] Nevertheless both the Portuguese and Spanish fishing industry in the areawas destroyed in 1585 by an English expedition led byBernard Drake, and never recovered.[26]
In 1534,Jacques Cartier planted a cross in theGaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name ofFrancis I of France.[27] In 1600, a trading post was established atTadoussac, but only five of the sixteen settlers survived the winter and returned home that summer.[27] In 1604, the first year-round permanent settlement was founded bySamuel de Champlain atÎle-Saint-Croix on Baie Française (Bay of Fundy), which was moved toPort-Royal in 1605.[28] In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded the city ofQuébec with 28 men of whom 20 died from lack of food and from scurvy the first winter.[28][29]
British colonization of the Americas (including colonization sponsored by both theKingdom of England andKingdom of Scotland before the 1707Acts of Union which created theKingdom of Great Britain) began in the late 16th century and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout theAmericas. TheKingdom of Great Britain acquired theFrench colony ofAcadia in 1713 and thenCanada, New France.[32]
The United Kingdom also claimed thewest coast of North America: indirectly via (from 1804) theNorth West Company and (after 1821)Hudson's Bay Company licenses west of theRocky Mountains, theColumbia andNew Caledonia fur districts, most of which were jointly claimed by the United States, which called it theOregon Country, from1818 until the 49th parallel as the international boundary was extended west of the Rockies by theOregon Treaty of 1846.[32] TheColony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, and theColony of British Columbia, founded in 1858, were combined in 1866 with the nameColony of British Columbia until joining Confederation in 1871.[32] British Columbia also was expanded with the addition what had been theColony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and also most of theStikine Territory in 1863 and, upon joiningConfederation, with the addition of thePeace River Country, formerly part of theNorthwest Territories.[32]
–List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts
Spanish colonizers had originally taken the lead in thePacific Northwest coast, with the voyages ofJuan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775.[33] This was in response to intelligence that theRussians had begun to explore the Pacific Coast of North America, which the Spanish considered part ofNew Spain.[34]
In 1799, TsarPaul I proclaimed Russian title and established theRussian American Company's trade monopoly and rule in the North Pacific through the creation ofRussian America.[36] The stated southward limit of Russian claims was51 degrees north latitude, roughly that ofCape Scott at the northern tip ofVancouver Island.[37] Though no Russian settlements were established in what is now British Columbia, Russian trade and scientific expeditions frequented the North Coast. Intense tripartite negotiation led to treaties between Russia with the U.S. and Britain in 1824 and 1825, respectively, setting the new southward limit of Russian territories at 54 degrees, 40 minutes north latitude, corresponding withCape Muzon at the southern tip ofDall Island, at the extreme southwest of what is today theAlaska Panhandle.[38][39]
Established in 1614 by theDutch West India Company, the colony of New Netherland covered most of what is now New York State. It was created to give the Dutch access to theNorth American fur trade, and was governed fromNew Amsterdam (nowNew York City). The territory officially claimed by the Dutch extended as far north as theSt. Lawrence River, placing much of their territory in modern-dayQuebec. Despite the fact that no settlements were established in the area of Quebec, it was still officially part of New Netherland and thus a part of theDutch Empire. In addition to that, during the Franco-Dutch wars of the 1670s, the Dutch captured several forts in Acadia, proclaiming the territory New Holland. There was no extensive settlement in the area, but the Dutch claims persisted for a few years at the least.
Canada became a semi-independent federated grouping of provinces and adominion after theConstitution Act, 1867 (formerly called the British North America Act 1867).[9] Originally three provinces of British North America, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and theProvince of Canada (which would become Ontario and Quebec) united to form the new nation.[9] Full independence came with theStatute of Westminster 1931 and theCanada Act 1982. Since 1867, Canada's external borders have changed several times, and had grown from four initial provinces toten provinces and three territories by 1999.[9] Territorial evolution included the use ofNumbered Treaties.
TheAlaska boundary dispute, simmering since theAlaska Purchase of 1867, became critical when gold was discovered inYukon during the late 1890s and Canada wanted its own Pacific port connected to the gold fields.[40] Canada argued its historic boundary with Russian America included theLynn Canal and the port ofSkagway, both occupied by the U.S.,[40] while the U.S. claimed theAtlin District and thelower Stikine and evenWhitehorse. The dispute went to arbitration in 1903, with the American claims largely upheld as the British delegate sided with the Americans to preserve the British interest in a close relationship with the U.S.[41]
Otto Sverdrup, aNorwegian explorer, claimed theSverdrup Islands for Norway in 1902 but the Norwegian government showed no interest in pursuing the claim until 1928.[42] On 11 November 1930 (Remembrance Day) after formal Canadian intervention, Norway recognized Canada's sovereignty over the islands.[43]
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Hans Island is the smallest of three islands located inKennedy Channel; the others areFranklin Island andCrozier Island.[44] The island is the traditional hunting grounds of theInuit and is claimed by both Canada andDenmark.[44] In 2007, updates of satellite photos led Canada to recognize the international border as crossing through the middle of Hans Island, not to the east of the island as previously claimed.[45]
TheCanadian government considers theNorthwestern Passages part ofCanadian Internal Waters,[46] but theUnited States and variousEuropean countries maintain they are aninternational strait or transit passage, allowing free and unencumbered passage.[47]
Although Canada and the United States share the longest non-militarizedborder between two countries, there is a long history of disputes about the border's demarcation.[48]
Since Confederation in 1867, there have been several proposals for new Canadian provinces and territories. The Constitution of Canada requires anamendment for the creation of a new province[49] but the creation of a new territory requires only anact of Parliament;[50] therefore, it is easierlegislatively to create a territory than a province.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)An amendment to the Constitution of Canada in relation to the following matters may be made only in accordance with subsection 38(1)...notwithstanding any other law or practice, the establishment of new provinces.
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