Aside from these principles constitutionally recognized, the foreign policy has been based on somedoctrines. TheEstrada Doctrine as the most influential and representative instrument in this field, proclaimed in the early 1930s and strictly applied until 2000,[3] claimed that foreign governments should not judge, positively or negatively, the governments or changes in government of other nations, since such action would be a breach of theirsovereignty.[23] This policy was said to be based on the principles ofnon-intervention,peaceful resolution of disputes andself-determination of all nations.[3]
The Mexican foreign service officially started in 1822,[27] the year after the signing of theTreaty of Córdoba, which marked the beginning ofthe country's independence.[28] In 1831, legislation was passed that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic representations with other states in Europe and the Americas.[27]
In the early 1970s, Mexico recognized the People's Republic of China as the sole and legitimate government of China,[30] therefore issues related to theRepublic of China (Taiwan) are managed through the Office of Consular Liaison under the circumscription of the Consulate General of Mexico in thespecial administrative regions of Hong Kong andMacau.[31] In addition, Mexico does not recognizeKosovo as an independent country.[32]
Both nations established diplomatic relations on February 4, 2020, inNew York City, with the signing done by their respective ambassadors to theUnited Nations.[177]
Central African Republic does not have an accreditation to Mexico.
Mexico is accredited to the Central African Republic from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.
Chad and Mexico established diplomatic relations on February 25, 1976.[178] In May 2002, Chadian Prime MinisterNagoum Yamassoum paid a visit to the Mexican city ofMonterrey to attend theMonterrey Consensus conference.[179]
Chad is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[180]
Mexico is accredited to Chad from its embassy inCairo,Egypt.[181]
After theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War, Mexico was the only country to condemn the Italian occupation of Ethiopia at theLeague of Nations. Since then, relations between the two nations have strengthened.In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia thanked Mexico by naming a square in the city called "Mexico Square". Mexico named a metro station in Mexico City calledMetro Etiopía.
Ethiopia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[190]
Ghana and Mexico established diplomatic relations on August 8, 1961. Soon afterwards, both nations opened embassies in each other's capitals, respectively. In 1972, Ghana closed its embassy in Mexico City. Mexico closed its embassy in Accra in 1980.[193] Mexico re-opened its embassy in Ghana in 2013.
Ghana is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[194]
Mexico recognized and established diplomatic relations with Namibia on April 17, 1990. In 1993, Mexico opened an embassy inWindhoek, however, the embassy was closed in 2002.[209]
Mexico is accredited to Namibia from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.[168]
Namibia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[210]
There were no official relations between Mexico and South Africa before 1993. After the end ofApartheid in South Africa, the countries established relations.
Mexico and Zimbabwe established diplomatic relations in March 1985. Mexico opened an embassy inHarare in 1990, however, the embassy later closed in 1994.[227]
Mexico is accredited to Zimbabwe from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.[168]
Zimbabwe is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[228]
Other issues of concern are the ones related to conservation and protection of the environment, theNorth American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) consists of a declaration of principles and objectives concerning this issues as well as concrete measures to further cooperation on these matters tripartitely.[232] In addition, the Independent Task Force on North America advocates a greater economic and social integration between Canada, Mexico and the U.S. as aregion.[233] It is a group of prominent business, political and academic leaders from the three countries organized and sponsored by theCouncil on Foreign Relations (U.S.), the Canadian Council of Chief Executives, and theMexican Council on Foreign Relations.[234]
First contacts started in 1818 with theUnited Provinces of South America.[240] Due to internal conflicts in each nation, relations between Mexico and Argentina were establishedde jure until the 1880s when both countries officially accredited their respective representations, upgraded to embassies in 1927.[240] On May 20, 1914, accredited diplomats from Argentina,Brazil andChile, known as theABC countries, met inNiagara Falls, Canada, to prevent a war between Mexico and the United States, potentially possible due to measures taken by then-U.S. PresidentWoodrow Wilson concerning theTampico Affair.[241]
In 2005, during theFourth Summit of the Americas inMar de Plata, Argentina, tensions between the two countries started when former PresidentVicente Fox canceled the anticipatively programmed bilateral reunion with then-PresidentNéstor Kirchner.[243] At the Summit, Fox actively promoted theFree Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and suggested the exclusion of those who did not agree; Argentina, Brazil andVenezuela argued that the Summit was not meant to discuss the FTAA and rejected the proposition.[243] At the end of the ceremony, Fox expressed that "the most important countries of the Americas (Canada, Mexico and the U.S.) supported the FTAA, and the secondary ones (Cuba, Venezuela and the members ofMercosur) were against it".[243] Later, he criticized Kirchner's interest of "pleasing the Argentinepublic opinion",[244] who responded that "Fox should only care for the affairs that involve Mexico [...] and good diplomacy was not about bowing down to powerful countries".[244] The respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs redacted a jointcommuniqué apologizing for the incident and reminded the "importance of the good relations for both countries".[244] In 2007, when Kirchner paid astate visit, he and PresidentFelipe Calderón signed a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" to strengthen bilateral ties.[245]
In recent years, both partners, along with Colombia, Italy, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and six other countries, developed a movement calledUniting for Consensus, nicknamed the "Coffee Club", in opposition to thepossible expansion of the United Nations Security Council.[246] Argentina and Mexico, specifically, do not support the integration of Brazil as a permanent member of the UNSC.[247]
Mexico and Brazil represent more than half of population, territory andeconomic development in Latin America, and have the major prestige in the region.[259] Considered asregional powers by analysts,[19][20] relations between the two countries remain good. In the economic area, both are members of theALADI, theG8+5 and theG-20.[259]
In October 2006, President-electFelipe Calderón visited Brazilian PresidentLuiz Inácio Lula da Silva, to deepen the dialogue and cooperation between the two countries.[259] The governments of Brazil and Mexico look for maintaining an opened dialogue with several visits to strengthen the bilateral relations and allow a major exchange in areas such asnon-proliferation of nuclear weapons, human rights, environment and energy.[259] Thus the Brazil-Mexico Bilateral Commission was released in March 2007 to strengthen their relations.[264] In August 2007, when President "Lula" da Silva paid astate visit, both leaders agreed to coordinate their foreign policies towards Latin America in order to further integrate the region.[265]
In the multilateral scene, Brazil and Mexico's actions are guided by solid principles such as respect forinternational law, defense of multilateralism, social justice and democratization ofinternational relations. As noted, both countries share views internationally.[259] However, some differences remain, being the most significant theReform of the United Nations Security Council.[247] Brazil and Mexico, along with India, the People's Republic of China and South Africa, often represent the interests of thedeveloping countries through economic forums such as theG8+5 and theG-20.[266]
Formal relations did not begin until 1944,[271] at the height of the Second World War, which both countries participated in on theAllied side.[272] Prior to the negotiations around theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), economic and political ties between Mexico and Canada were relatively weak. Since NAFTA has come into force, the two countries have become much more important to each other, and often collaborate when dealing with the United States, for example with issues related to theeconomic embargo imposed toCuba.[273]
Currently, Mexico and Canada are close friends and strategic partners and benefit from a very active bilateral relationship which includes ever increasingcommercial ties, high-level political exchanges and an expanding collaborative network between Mexicans and Canadians in areas such asclimate change, culture, energy, education, goodgovernance, human rights andpublic service modernization. And more recently, both countries have been building acloser security and defense relationship.[271]
In recent years, both partners along with Italy, Argentina, Pakistan and other eight countries have sought areform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods[246] Which form a group informally called theCoffee Club, that opposes to the proposition of theG4.[247]
In the early 1820s, Chile and Mexico establisheddiplomatic relations, both countries had interest of integrating the region, however, due to Mexico's economic and political instability the project did not go further.[274] In 1914, due to theTampico Affair, then-U.S. PresidentWoodrow Wilson ordered the occupation of thePort of Veracruz. Once Wilson realized that his objectives had failed, he appealed to the accredited diplomats ofArgentina, Brazil and Chile, known as theABC countries, to mediate and find a peaceful solution to the international conflict preventing a war between Mexico and the U.S.[241]
Relations were reestablished in 1990 after theChilean transition to democracy with the election ofPatricio Aylwin.[276]A Free Trade Agreement with Chile was signed in April 1998 and went into force on August 1, 1999.[277] Since then, bilateral trade has significantly increased and exceeded the US$3.3 billion mark as of 2006. In addition, Mexico has become Chile's main Latin American investor, accumulating nearly US$870 million.[276] Under theFox administration, the candidacy of then-Minister of Foreign AffairsLuis Ernesto Derbez for theSecretary General of the Organization of American States was highly promoted. It eventually failed but brought a diplomatic crisis withChile when Derbez had announced that he would no longer compete againstJosé Miguel Insulza, however, the Mexican delegation abstained despite being previously agreed that it would vote for the Chilean candidate.[278] Bilateral relations were raised to a new level during the state visit ofPresidentMichelle Bachelet to Mexico in March 2007, both countries put into effect a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" aimed at bolstering trade, political, diplomatic and cultural relations, as well as ties withcivil society. It also creates a fund that will provide US$2 million a year for development projects in Chile, Mexico and third countries.[279]
In 1902, Mexico became the first country to ever recognize and establish relations with theRepublic of Cuba once it gained fullsovereignty.[286] The cultural ties between the two nations became stronger during the following decades. In the mid-20th century, theCuban Revolution took place, culminating with the triumph of theJuly 26 Movement on January 1, 1959. In 1964, when Cuba was expelled from theOrganization of American States Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained.[287] Mexico thereafter maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba, which effectively established it as the sole link betweenFidel Castro and therest of the hemisphere because none of the other Latin American governments recognized Cuba's revolutionary regime until after 1970.[287] Since then, Mexico constantly supported Cuba in international organizations and multilateral forums, and strongly opposed to theeconomic embargo imposed to the Caribbean island in the early 1960s.[288]
Relations remained strong and stable until 1998 whenFidel Castro, declared that Mexican children were more knowledgeable on Disney characters than on key figures inMexican history, such declarations led Mexico to recall its ambassador fromHavana. He later apologized and said that his words were meant to underscore thecultural dominance of the U.S.[289] On November 16, 1999, then Mexican PresidentErnesto Zedillo highly criticized the lack of democracy andpolitical freedom in Cuba during his official visit to the Caribbean island.[290] Relations worsened when then PresidentVicente Fox, from theNational Action Party, redirected the country'sCastañeda Doctrine on foreign policy. In April 2002, theUN Human Rights Commission again criticizedCuba's rights record, the resolution was sponsored byUruguay and supported by many of countries traditionally friendly towards Cuba, such as Mexico, that historically had abstained.[291] The same month, Fox apologized to Fidel Castro over allegations by Castro that Fox forced him at the last minute to leave theUnited Nations International Conference on Financing for Development inMonterrey, Mexico, in order to favor the presence of former U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bush, who also attended and likely requested Castro's removal. Castro, Cuba, and even many Mexicans saw this as an insult, and relations between the two countries reached their lowest point.[292]
Under theCalderón administration, Mexico concentrated on rebuilding diplomatic relations with Havana.[26] On December 15–17, 2008, in the framework of the "First Latin American and Caribbean Summit for Integration and Development", President Calderón introduced Cuba to the regional organizationRio Group and held talks with PresidentRaúl Castro about topics of interests for both countries. They both agreed to schedule mutual visits for 2009,[293] and put emphasis on strengthening the friendship, cooperation, integration, trade and support. Both countries share the vision of a permanent fight against poverty and organized crime.
With seven months before the six-year term of Felipe Calderón came to an end, he made plans to visit Cuba to "patch up the bruise" and discuss possible business relations, which included oil deals.[294]In April 2012, President Felipe Calderón traveled to Cuba and met withRaúl Castro to fix the broken relationship between the two countries. During his time in Cuba, Calderón condemned the 50-year-oldU.S. trade embargo against Cuba.[295]
Mexico and Peru have historically had a unique relationship solidly based on that they share two of the most significant ancient cultures in the Americas. Both countries have expressed solidarity over the need to defend the recovery of cultural and archaeological heritage in the form of artifacts that have been illegally stolen from Peru and Mexico and which are to this date, illegally or legitimately kept in foreign locations. Peru's PresidentAlan García and Mexico'sFelipe Calderón signed a joint declaration in April 2011 aimed at deepening the two countries' friendship, cooperation, integration, trade, investments and the permanent fight against poverty and organized crime. The two countries aim to achieve a new model of integration within Latin America, and to represent a positive, realistic, and active example of integration amongst two "brotherly" nations. Both nations will retain consular relations. On 3 November 2025, the Peruvian government severed relations with Mexico for offering former Prime MinisterBetssy Chávez asylum inside the Mexican Embassy in Lima.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
Mexico is accredited to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines from its embassy in Castries, Saint Lucia and maintains an honorary consulate inKingstown.[239]
TheMexican–American War was a conflict that sparked when theU.S. annexed Texas in 1845 and the Mexican government refused to recognize the secession of Texas which was the precursor to the annexation.[327] The war, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years, was settled via theTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which led to Mexico giving up even more of its land to the U.S., including California.[328] Mexico further transferred some of its territories (southernArizona andNew Mexico) to the U.S. via theGadsden Purchase in 1854.[329]
In theReform War, that lasted from 1858 to 1861, the liberals led byBenito Juárez, were given the U.S. recognition as the legitimate government in Mexico.[330] Meanwhile, the conservatives, headed byComonfort,Zuloaga andMiramón, brought a European Emperor to govern the country,Maximilian I, which led to theFrench Intervention in 1862,[331] violating theMonroe Doctrine, there was nothing the U.S. could do, as it was involved in itsown civil war.[332] Affecting Mexico's foreign policy, both sides, theUnion and theConfederacy, were looking for international recognition as well. TheJuárez administration was ideologically closer to the Union, but geographically Mexico shared a large border with the Confederacy.[332] In 1861, the then-U.S. PresidentAbraham Lincoln namedThomas Corwin as his minister for Mexico and instructed him to neutralize the Mexican aid given to the Confederates; he successfully achieved this mission.[332] Once the civil war ended, then-Secretary of StateWilliam Seward declared that the French invasion in Mexico was harmful to the friendship between France and the U.S., and Washington provided financial aid toBenito Juárez, who successfully expelled the French in 1867.[332]
Lasting for seven years, the 1910Mexican Revolution ended the rule of the dictator-presidentPorfirio Díaz. The war was sparked when the U.S.-supported Díaz was proclaimed the winner of the 1910 elections despite mass popular support for his rival in the electionFrancisco I. Madero.[333] After the war, the various groups that made up therevolutionary forces splintered as they lost the unifying goal of unseating Díaz —leading to a civil war.[334] The U.S. intervened in the conflict, including the involvement of the U.S. ambassador,Henry Lane Wilson, in the plotting of the1913 coup d'état which overthrew Madero.[335]
First ladies Paloma Cordero of Mexico (left) andNancy Reagan of the United States (right) with U.S. Ambassador to Mexico,John Gavin observing the damage done by the earthquake.
The1917 Constitution of Mexico caused several problems with the British and American transnational oil companies mainly derived from the article 27, which declares that "the wealth contained in the soil, thesubsoil, the waters and seas of Mexico belongs to the Nation; the right to land ownership and to exploit the subsoil may therefore only be granted by the Nation."[336] Due to foreign pressure, the implementation of the article was continuously ignored by the government until March 18, 1938, when then-PresidentLázaro Cárdenasnationalized the oil industry.[337]PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, as well as an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later.[338]
During theCold War, demonstrating independence from the United States, Mexico supported theCuban government during the 1960s,[6] theSandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,[7] and leftist revolutionary groups inEl Salvador during the 1980s.[8]
TheNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, which led to theelimination of tariffs and othertrade barriers between Mexico and the U.S. and serves as a multilateral platform for cooperation between both countries.[339] The agreement increased trade volume and cooperation in both countries.[340] The free trade agreement has been increasingly opposed byMexican and U.S. farmers, with many groups and thepolitical left presenting that it hurts the interest of traditional, small and local farmers in both countries.[341] Allegations ofviolations of labor andenvironmental laws have been considered by the trilateral institutions.[342] TheBush Administration argued that NAFTA had had modest positive impacts on all three member countries, butMexican farmers have strongly criticized the effects of the agreement as they have become overshadowed by the large corporations benefiting from NAFTA.[343] Notable bilateral trade disputes relate to trucking, tuna,sweeteners andanti-dumping measures.[344] Currently, the United States is the number one destination for Mexican exports. The U.S. also exports more goods into Mexico than any other country in the world.
Historically the two countries have had good diplomatic relations. Ever since both countries became important players in the oil industry, some competitive tensions arose, eventually leading to disputes after Mexico signed an agreement to join NAFTA. During PresidentVicente Fox's term, relations between the two countries became critically strained to the point of recalling one another's ambassadors. It has been clear that diplomatic ties between both countries are not indefinitely severed, in recent years numerous groups, both in Mexico and Venezuela are working to restore the diplomatic relationship between the two countries, as they are of strategic economic and cultural importance. In August 2007, after two years of diplomatic absence in either country, normal relations were re-established with the appointment of former foreign minister Roy Chaderton as Venezuela's envoy in Mexico City and the transfer of Jesús Mario Chacón Carrillo, formerly Mexican ambassador to Colombia, to Caracas. Both countries are founding members of theLatin American Integration Association.
Mexico and the People's Republic of China established relations amidst tensions in 1972, and in recent years have seen an intense export rivalry over the United States market, with the Mexican government having accused the Chinese of impinging on its export territory by flooding the US with cheap goods manufactured in low-wage factories.
In 2005, Chinese President Hu Jintao came to Mexico promising increased investment in industries like automobile-parts manufacture and mineral exportation. In July 2008,Mexican PresidentFelipe Calderón reciprocated with a visit to Beijing in a bid to improve bilateral trade. Nevertheless, China has focussed more on South American commodity producers such as Brazil and Chile to meet this end and fuel its chiefly-export economy.
China has an embassy in Mexico City[371] and a consulate-general inTijuana.[372]
Under theFox administration, several visits and bilateral meetings occurred concerning diverse areas such as economy, technology and culture. In April 2004, the "Group of Friendship Mexico-India" was established at the LIX Legislature. To promote a major rapprochement with India, then-Secretary of Foreign AffairsLuis Ernesto Derbez met with hisIndian counterpart in mid-2004 in Washington, D.C., and officially visited New Delhi in August, where bothministers agreed to celebrate the IV Binational Commission, formerly suspended in 1996, with the aim of strengthening the bilateral agenda. In May 2007, India and Mexico signed the "Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement" (BIPA) to strengthen their trading relations, with proximity to the U.S., the joint ventures would enable Indian companies to increase their presence in theworld's biggest market, taking advantage of Mexico's membership in theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Relationship with India was tightened by visit of Indianprime minister Narendra Modi in 2016 June. This visit was visit of Indianprime minister after a long time of 30 years. This time Mexico also supported India to joinNuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
The first diplomatic relations between Mexico and Persia (modern-day Iran) date back to 1889, although cooperation and trade between the two friend nations was not formally established until 1937.[383]Mexico and Iran have enjoyed increasingly close political and economic relations over the years, growing with the volume of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. The two countries aim to expand cooperation in several sectors, sharing science and technology, particularly in the oil industry. Both countries have also shared successful experiences in cultural cooperation and exchange. In 2008, an agreement to form a Mexico-Iran parliamentary friendship group was made at the Mexican parliament.
The Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1888 between the two countries was Japan's first "equal" treaty with a foreign country.[389] In 1897, the 35 members of the so-calledEnomoto Colonization Party settle in theMexican state of Chiapas to grow coffee, this was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America.[389]Former Mexican PresidentÁlvaro Obregón was awarded Japan'sOrder of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony inMexico City. On November 27, 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón. It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside theImperial family.[390] In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify theSan Francisco Peace Treaty, preceded only by the United Kingdom.[389]On September 17, 2004, Mexico and Japan signed afree trade agreement, formally known as the "Agreement Between Japan and the United Mexican States for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership", which went into effect in April 2005.[391] This was one among many historic steps led by Prime MinisterJunichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability. As a result, in 2007 Mexico became Japan's largest trading partner in Latin America.[391] Over sixty treaties and agreements have been signed between the two countries, standing out the ones related to technological and scientific cooperation, several academic and cultural exchanges, as well as an increasinginter-parliamentary dialogue.[389][392]Mexico currently enjoys very good social and economic relations with Japan and is major center of Japanese investment. Japan has invested heavily in the Mexican industrial, automotive, technology and manufacturing sectors.[393][394][395][396][397][398][399][400][401][402] As of 2012, it was estimated that Japanese companies employed over one million workers in Mexico just in the automotive and technology manufacturing industries.
Japan has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate-general inLeón.[403]
Mexico was among the first nations to recognize Lebanon's independence in 1943.Mexico was a popular destination during theLebanese diaspora. There is a significant population of Lebanese descent in Mexico, nearing half a million people, many of which travel to and support business with Lebanon.The Centro Libanés and "Club Deportivo Libanés" in Mexico City are important symbols representing the historically cultural and social ties between both countries.
Mexico and thePhilippines share a myriad of traditions and customs derived from historical ties established over 460 years ago. Their common history dates back to the time when both countries were part ofNew Spain. Mexican money financed the expedition known asLegazpi exploration, under the command ofKing Philip II of Spain. During the Mexican administration of the Philippines, other thanGeneral Legazpi, all of the governor-generals were born in Mexico. Due to the grand exchange with the Philippines in those days, many cultural traits were adopted by one another, with Mexicans remaining in the Philippines, and Filipinos establishing in Mexico, particularly the central west coast, near the port town ofAcapulco. ManyNahuatl words were adopted and popularized in the Philippines, such asTianggui (market fair) andZapote (a fruit).After the colonial period, the first official contacts of Mexico with the Philippines were established in 1842, when a Mexican Representation was opened in Manila. With the assignment of Mexican Diplomat Evaristo Butler Hernandez in the Philippines in 1878.The Independence of the Philippines brought forth a new era of relations between these countries. Mexico dispatched an envoy to participate in the festivities to celebrate the birth of theSoutheast Asian nation. Diplomatic ties between both countries were formalized on April 14, 1953. The year of 1964 was decreed the "Year of Philippine-Mexican Friendship" to celebrate the Fourth Centennial of the Expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi. In modern day, the conquest of the Philippines is seen as a Spanish initiative, while Mexico is viewed as a country of historical link and friendship, and several groups intend on strengthening the bond between the two countries.[431]
Mexico has a liaison office inTaipei known as the "Mexican Trade Services, Documentation and Cultural Office".[441]
Taiwan has a liaison office in Mexico City known as the "Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Mexico" (Oficina Económica y Cultural de Taipei en México).[442]
Mexico was the firstLatin American country to sign a partnership agreement with theEuropean Union (EU), in 1997, composed by15 members at the time.[277] The agreement entered into force in July 2000 and has considerably strengthened bilateral relations between the two partners. It governs all relations between them, including a regular high-level political dialogue, and shared values such as democracy and human rights.
Mexico recognized and established diplomatic relations with Albania on October 15, 1974. Shortly thereafter Mexico opened a resident embassy inTirana, however the embassy was closed in 1979.[454]
Albania is accredited to Mexico from its embassy inWashington, D.C., USA.
Mexico is accredited to Albania from its embassy inRome, Italy[455] and has an honorary consulate inTirana.[456]
In 1938, Mexico became the only country to protest against theanschluss of Austria at theLeague of Nations.[459] DuringWorld War II, Austria was part of theGerman Reich and in May 1942 Mexico declared war on Germany after the destruction of two Mexican oil tankers in the Gulf of Mexico by GermanU-boats.[460] After the war, normal relations were restored between the two nations.
As of 2005, Mexico was Austria's second most important trade partner in Latin America.[461] The same year, thePresident of AustriaHeinz Fischer visited Mexico and Brazil, the first everstate visit of an Austrian President to countries in Latin America.[462]
In 1836, Belgium—itself newly independent—recognized the independence of Mexico. In 1919, the Belgian chamber of commerce of Mexico was established. Belgium opened its embassy in Mexico on June 5, 1954.[470]
Denmark is Mexico's largest investor and trade partner among theNordic countries. Diplomatic relations began in 1827 with aTreaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation.[482]
Theindependence of Mexico was recognizedde jure by France until 1830.[489] The first official contacts concerned trading, in 1827 an agreement signed in Paris established that both countries and its citizens would enjoy a privileged position reciprocally, which included complaints and demands related to the damages suffered during the war from French citizens living in Mexico, theMexican Congress refused to ratify it.[489] then-French Foreign MinisterLouis-Mathieu Molé sent anultimatum urging the Mexican government to pay off its debts, due toeconomic instability, refused to do so.[490] In 1838, a French pastry cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed his shop in theTacubaya district ofMexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828, he appealed toFrench KingLouis-Philippe. Coming to its citizen's aid, France demandedMXN$600,000 in damages.[491] When the payment was not forthcoming from then-PresidentAnastasio Bustamante, Louis-Philippe sent a fleet to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports fromYucatán Peninsula to theRio Grande, and to seize thePort of Veracruz, which led to an armed conflict known as thePastry War.[491] British diplomatRichard Pakenham offered his mediation, after several negotiations, Mexico was eventually forced to pay the initially demanded MXN$600,000 and burdensome compensations.[327]
In 1861, the liberals won theWar of Reform, however, it left the treasury depleted.Trade was stagnant, and foreign creditors were demanding full repayment of Mexican debts, Juárez proceeded to declare amoratorium on all foreign debt repayments.[331]France,Great Britain and Spain decided to launch a joint occupation of theMexican Gulf coast to force repayment.[331] The Spanish and British quickly figured out that Juárez fully intended to pay the debts when he could, so they withdrew. They also realized that the French had other intentions, indicated by the arrival of reinforcements, and had no desire to help France achieve its ambitions, which led to amilitary intervention, encouraged by the defeated conservatives.[331] When the French enteredMexico City in mid-1863, the conservatives quickly invitedArchduke Ferdinand Maximilian ofAustria to accept the Mexican crown, who agreed believing that this act responded to the desire of a majority of Mexicans.[492] However, once the conservatives understood Maximilian's democratic sentiments andanticlerical attitudes, began withdrawing their support.[493] When theAmerican Civil War ended, the U.S. made itsMonroe Doctrine valid and intervened by providing military and financial aid to Juárez.[494] Meanwhile, in Europe, France was increasingly threatened by a belligerentPrussia and, by 1866,Napoleon III began recalling his troops stationed in Mexico.[332] Conservative forces switched sides and began supporting the Mexican liberals. United resumed their campaign on February 19, 1867, and on May 15,Maximilian surrendered. He was tried and, on Juárez's orders, was executed on June 19.[332] After an exhaustive process,diplomatic relations were reestablished in 1880, leaving behind claims related to the war.[495]
Both nations had an international dispute over the island ofClipperton, which had been under Mexican occupation, but claimed by the Foreign Ministry of France.[496] In 1931 both nations agreed to abide to the arbitration of KingVictor Emmanuel III of Italy, who declared it a French territory.
When theFourth Republic collapsed in 1958, Mexico was the first country that recognized theFifth Republic founded by GeneralCharles de Gaulle.[497] In subsequent years, both countries coordinated actions and released a communiqué that supported theFarabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) during theSalvadoran Civil War.[498] Recently,PresidentNicolas Sarkozy paid a state visit in March 2009, however, controversy over theFlorence Cassez case, aFrenchwoman convicted of kidnapping in Mexico sentenced to 60 years in jail, overshadowed the bilateral agenda.[499] Backed by the "Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons", Sarkozy persuaded the Mexican government to allow Cassez to serve out her sentence in France, however, public opinion in Mexico strongly opposes under the suspicion that once home, she would quickly be released from jail.[500] A bilateral commission was established to handle the case.[500] Meanwhile, speaking at theNational Palace in Mexico City, Sarkozy praised Calderón for Mexico's "courageous and determined"battle against drug cartels[499] and urged theCongress to reform theConstitution in order to allow theMexican military to collaborate with the United Nations inpeacekeeping missions.[501] Supported byBritish Prime MinisterGordon Brown, Sarkozy has previously expressed that theG8 would benefit from a permanent enlargement that includes the+5 countries.[502]
France has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate-general inMonterrey.[503]
Alexander von Humboldt's reports on his trip to then-New Spain back in the early 19th century heralded the start of Germany's interest in Mexico.[506] Commercial links were quickly established through the signing of the "Treaty of Commerce and Navigation" between Mexico andHamburg in 1823. Due to increasing investment, six years later,Prussia sent Carl Koppe as its first general consul and first representative in the newborn nation. During the administration of dictatorPorfirio Díaz, commercial ties significantly strengthened.[506]
In January 1917, Britain's secret Royal Navycryptanalytic group,Room 40, intercepted a proposal from Berlin, theZimmermann Telegram, to Mexico to join theGreat War as Germany's ally against the United States, should the U.S. join. The proposal suggested, if the U.S. were to enter the war, Mexico should declare war against the U.S. and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the U.S. from joining theAllies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming Texas,New Mexico andArizona.[507] When the U.S. entered the war on April 2, 1917, eleven days later then-PresidentVenustiano Carranza not only turned down the proposition but also declared neutrality.[508]
Nearly 25,000Mennonites of German ancestry immigrated from Canada to Mexico and settled in thestates ofChihuahua andDurango in 1922, their agricultural centers still contribute to the economy of the region.[509] After the establishment ofNazi Germany, Mexico received hundreds ofasylum seekers, standing out important figures such asEgon Erwin Kisch,Anna Seghers and Paul Westheim.[509] During the Second World War, theAxis powers sank two Mexican oil tankers such asFaja de Oro andPotrero de Llano, despite Mexico's neutrality. This attacks were enough to make Mexico enter the world conflict.[510] In 1952,diplomatic relations between the two countries were officially reestablished.[509]
In 1964, the foundation ofVolkswagen inPuebla, Mexico, best represents the foreign investment from Germany; specifically, theVolkswagen Beetle, informally called "vocho", is commonly seen as a symbol of Germany in the country.[509] In contemporary times, Germany is viewed as a privileged partner in Europe, from whom economic, political and cultural engagement in Mexico is expected. Bilateral relations are being intensified in all areas based on a "Joint Declaration" between the two countries'Foreign Ministries signed in April 2007.[511] Economic ties have been strengthened since theEuropean Union-MexicoFree Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Germany has become Mexico's fourth-largest trading partner.[512]
In 1904 the Holy See assigned anApostolic Delegate to Mexico. Diplomatic relations were restored in 1992, giving the office of the Apostolic Delegate in Mexico City the status of anunciature. As of 2012 about 78% of Mexico's population declared themselves Roman Catholics.
Holy See has an Apostolic Nunciature in Mexico City.[518]
Mexico has a resident embassy to the Holy See inRome.[519]
Diplomatic relations between Hungary and Mexico were suspended between 1941 and 1974 and re-established on May 14, 1974. The Mexican embassy in Budapest was opened on September 30, 1976.
The first contact between Italy and Mexico was in 1869, just before the end ofItalian unification in 1870; when Italy expressed its desire to open a consulate in Mexico. A consulate was opened in Mexico in December 1872, however, diplomatic relations between the two nations were not established until December 15, 1874.[525]
DuringWorld War I, Mexico remained neutral because it was involved in its ownrevolution during the same time. In the 1930s, diplomatic relations between the two nations began to deteriorate when Prime MinisterBenito Mussolini invaded and annexed Abyssinia (nowEthiopia) during theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935–1936. Mexico was one of the few countries to vehemently oppose the occupation of Abyssinia by Italian forces.[526] On May 22, 1942, Mexico declared war on theaxis powers due to German u-boat attacks on two Mexican oil tankers in theGulf of Mexico that same year. Diplomatic relations were re-established on June 1, 1946.[525]
In 1997, Mexico signed aFree Trade Agreement with theEuropean Union (which includes Italy). Trade between the two nations totaled just over six billion USD in 2011. Among the products that Mexico exports to Italy are: automobiles and petroleum based products. Italy exports mainly steel products to Mexico. Today, Italy is Mexico's ninth biggest trading partner in the world (third in Europe after Germany and Spain). Mexico is Italy's second biggest trading partner inLatin-America (after Brazil).[527]
Lithuania and Mexico initially established diplomatic relations on May 31, 1938, and signed a Treaty of Friendship in Washington, D.C., United States. Mexico never recognized the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union and condemned the action. On November 5, 1991, Mexico recognized and re-established diplomatic relations with Lithuania. In 2002, PresidentValdas Adamkus paid a visit to Mexico and met with Mexican PresidentVicente Fox. In 2008, President Adamkus returned to Mexico for a visit and met with Mexican PresidentFelipe Calderón.[533]
Lithuania is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, and maintains an honorary consulate in Mexico City.[534]
Mexico is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden and maintains an honorary consulate inVilnius.[531]
Diplomatic relations between Luxembourg and Mexico were established in 1947. In 1980, Prime MinisterPierre Werner paid an official visit to Mexico. In March 1996,Grand Duke Jean paid a visit to Mexico. During the Grand Duke's visit, both nations signed an Air Transportation Agreement. In April 2019, Prime MinisterXavier Bettel paid an official visit to Mexico and met with PresidentAndrés Manuel López Obrador.[535][536]
Luxembourg is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and maintains an honorary consulate inMérida.[537]
Mexico is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and maintains an honorary consulate inLuxembourg City.[472]
On September 27, 1993, the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announcedThe Netherlands – Mexico Tax Treaty and Protocol. The regulations detail the formalities residents of the Netherlands must observe "in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties."[542] In 2008 Mexico and the Netherlands modified their existing tax treaty, initially signed in 1993 to strength cooperation to curb tax evasion.[543][544]
SeeMexico–Portugal relationsMexican President Enrique Peña Nieto on a state visit to Portugal meeting with Portuguese President Aníbal Cavaco Silva; 2014.
Diplomatic relations between both countries were established in 1890. In 2010 the 120th anniversary of the ties of friendship between the peoples of Russia and Mexico were celebrated.
Mexico was the first country in the Americas to establish relations with the then Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Soviet politician and leaderLeon Trotsky moved to Mexico fromNorway during his exile. Mexican PresidentLázaro Cárdenas welcomed him warmly, arranging a special train to bring him to Mexico City from the port ofTampico. In Mexico, Trotsky at one point lived at the home of the painterDiego Rivera, and at another at that of Rivera's wife & fellow painter,Frida Kahlo with whom he had an affair.[555]
Due to its good relations with Russia, Mexico has often purchased military equipment from Russia. TheMexican Navy has receivedBTR-60'sUral-4320,Mi-17/8's, and anti-aircraft missilesSA-18 Grouse. Much of this equipment remains in service.
Mexico was the firstLatin American country to recognize Slovenia after gaining independence on May 22, 1992. Mexican parliament members have praised Slovenia's participation in the eight-country initiative (which includes Mexico) for a world withoutnuclear weapons and its achievements in the human rights area. Since 1999 both countries have abolished visas as an example of strengthening relations.
Mexico is accredited to Slovenia from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.[464]
Slovenia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[558]
The first decades of Mexico's post-independence period were characterized byeconomic instability. On July 17, 1861, then-PresidentBenito Juárez's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain,France andGreat Britain.[331]Napoleon III was the leader of this operation, and the three powers signed theTreaty of London on October 31 to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico. On December 8 the Spanish fleet and troops fromSpanish-controlled Cuba arrived at Mexico's main Gulf port,Veracruz. Spain along Great Britain soon withdrew after the signing of the "Treaty of La Soledad", France did not agree with the terms andimmediately invaded Mexico.[331]
Since their re-establishment on March 28, 1977, have been strengthened within a modern, legal and institutional framework to promote politic dialogue andcooperation. In January 1990, the "General Treaty of Cooperation and Friendship" was signed to establish a Bilateral Commission.[565] In 2007, PresidentCalderón andSpanish PresidentJosé Luis Rodríguez Zapatero paidstate visits reciprocally[565] and signed a declaration to deepen the strategic association between the two countries.[566] After theEuropean Union-MexicoFree Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Spain became Mexico's seventh trading partner and second amongst theEuropean Union members.[567]
Due to rivalry withFrance andSpain, then-Prime MinisterGeorge Canning was interested in recognizing the independence of the newborn nations in the Americas. On June 27, 1824, Canning received Mexican plenipotentiary ministerJosé Mariano Michelena and recognized Mexico as an independent countryde facto, andformally on December 30, despite opposition from the British cabinet.[582]United Kingdom was the first country to officially recognize the independence of Mexico.[583]
In subsequent decades, the United Kingdom would persuade other European countries to recognize Mexico, especially Spain, and offermediation in different international conflicts that involved Mexico in the 19th century such as thePastry War[327] and theTexas War of Independence.[584] By 1861, Mexico was a country deeply in debt and torn by divisions of the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Mexico's creditors demanded repayment, forcing then-PresidentBenito Juárez to declare a two-yearmoratorium onforeign debt, which in turn led to a punitive expedition sent by Britain,France and Spain. Juarez successfully negotiated the "Treaty of La Soledad" with the British and Spanish, who soon withdrew.[331] After theMexican Congress ratified a commercial agreement with the U.S. in 1883, Great Britain showed more interest in reestablish diplomatic relations with Mexico, and quickly did so a couple of years later.[585] Sovereignty over the territory ofBelize was historically claimed by Mexico, but theBritish crown refused to discuss this issue for a long time; however, in 1897, the signing of the "Mariscal-Spencer Treaty" resolved the territorial disputes with theBritish crown colony.[586]
In 1917,Mexico's newly promulgated Constitution provided, among other things, restrictions on foreign ownership of land andsubsoil resources, notably oil.[587] This last provision, included in Article 27, was ominous for American and British investors who had obtained oil-mining concessions.[588] Due to heavy foreign pressure, subsequent governments did not strictly applicate the article, untilLázaro Cárdenas, who on March 18, 1938, fullynationalized the oil-industry. This measure led to protests by the British government questioning the nationalization and Mexico's solvency to execute it. In response, a check, in an amount worth of the demands for nationalization, was sent and diplomatic ties were broken off.[589]PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, and an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later.[588]
Decades later, several state visits would be reciprocally paid, notably QueenElizabeth II of the United Kingdom in 1975.[590] On March 31 – April 1, 2009, PresidentFelipe Calderón officially visited the UK to discuss issues related to modernization of the national oil industry,climate change and strategic cooperation with Prime MinisterGordon Brown, as well as coordinating actions for theG-20 London Summit.[591]
Mexico is the tenth largest contributor to the United Nations (UN) regular budgets.[16] Currently, it is a member of eighteen organizations arisen from theGeneral Assembly,Economic and Social Council and other specialized organizations of the UN.[602]
Mexico has served as a non-permanent member of theUnited Nations Security Council (UNSC) three times (1946, 1982–83, 2002–03). On October 17, 2008, picking up 185 votes, it was elected to serve as a non-permanent member for the fourth time, from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2010.[603] Since April 1, Mexico holds the rotative presidency of the UNSC.[604]
In recent years, the need ofreforming the UNSC and its working methods has been widely impulsed by Mexico,[246] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries.[247] And have formed a movement informally called theCoffee Club, created in the 1990s, which highly opposes to the reform that theGroup of Four (G4) suggests.[605]
In 1964, under U.S. pressure, the OAS required all member countries to break off diplomatic ties withCuba. Mexico refused, condemned theBay of Pigs invasion, and did not support the expulsion of Cuba from the OAS.[608] Years later, Mexico strongly opposed to the creation of a military alliance within the OAS framework, and condemned theU.S. invasion of Panama in 1989.[609]
Themegadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are considered extremelybiodiverse and therefore are of utmost priority on the global environmental agenda.Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries[610] in 1998,[611][612] most are located in or have territories in the tropics.
In 2002,Mexico formed a separate organization named Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries, consisting of countries rich in biological diversity and associated traditional knowledge.[613] This organization includes a different set of involved megadiverse countries than those identified by Conservation International.
2005: Agreement for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership withJapan.[616]
2011: Unifying Free Trade Agreement withCentral America (unified existing treaties with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and the Northern Triangle countries).[617]
2020: Trade Continuity Agreement with theUnited Kingdom.2
1:The Bolivian government denounced the Mexico-Bolivia Free Trade Agreement's provisions on investments, services, intellectual property, and government purchases as incompatible with its 2009 constitution on June 7, 2010. In order to maintain free movement of goods between Mexico and Bolivia, the governments of the two countries agreed to replace the free trade agreement with an Economic Complementation Agreement effective on the same date.[615][618][619] 2: The United Kingdomleft the European Union on January 31, 2020. Under the terms of theBrexit withdrawal agreement, trade relations between Mexico and the UK continued to be bound by the terms of the Mexico-EU trade agreement for the duration of the UK's withdrawal transition period. On December 15, 2020, in preparation for the UK's final EU withdrawal on December 31, the UK and Mexico signed a temporary Trade Continuity Agreement in order to maintain free trade between the two countries.[620][621] Negotiations between Mexico and the UK for a newfree trade agreement to replace the existing continuity agreement began in July 2022.[622]
Mexico remains a transit and not acocaine production country.[625]Methamphetamine andcannabis production do take place in Mexico and are responsible for an estimated 80% of the methamphetamine on the streets in the United States,[626] while 1,100 metric tons of marijuana are smuggled each year from Mexico.[627]
In 1990 just over half the cocaine imported into the U.S. came through Mexico, by 2007 that had risen to more than 90 percent, according toU.S. State Department estimates.[628] Although violence betweendrug cartels has been occurring long before the war began, the government used its police forces in the 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century with little effect. That changed on December 11, 2006, when newly electedPresidentFelipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state ofMichoacán to put an end to drug violence there. This action is regarded as the first major retaliation made against cartel operations, and is generally viewed as the starting point of thewar between the government and the drug cartels.[629] As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now well over 25,000 troops involved.[630] It is estimated that during 2006, there were about 2,000 drug-related violent deaths,[631] about 2,300 deaths during 2007,[632] and more than 6,200 people by the end of 2008.[633] Many of the dead were gang members killed by rivals or by the government, some have been bystanders.
Our insatiable demand forillegal drugs fuels the drug trade. Our inability to prevent weapons from being illegally smuggled across the border to arm these criminals causes the deaths of police officers, soldiers and civilians.
Almost a third of all immigrants in the U.S. were born in Mexico, being the source of the greatest number of both authorized (20%) and unauthorized (56%) migrants who come to the U.S. every year.[635] Since the early 1990s, Mexican immigrants are no longer concentrated in California, the Southwest, andIllinois, but have been coming to new gateway states, including New York,North Carolina,Georgia,Nevada, and Washington, D.C., in increasing numbers.[635] This phenomenon can be mainly attributed to poverty in Mexico, the growing demand for unskilled labor in the U.S., the existence of established family and community networks that allow migrants to arrive in the U.S. with people known to them.[635]
The framework ofU.S. immigration law has largely remained the same since 1965. TheU.S. economy needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrant workers to remain competitive and to have enough workers who continue to pay intoSocial Security andMedicare as the U.S. population grows older. Nonetheless, there are currently very few channels for immigration to the U.S. for work-related reasons under current law.[636] Furthermore,Amnesty International has taken concern regarding the excessive brutality inflicted upon illegal immigrants, which includes beatings, sexual assault, denial of medical attention, and denial of food, water and warmth for long periods.[637]
Traditionally, Mexico built a reputation as one of theclassic asylum countries, with a varying attitude toward refugees from Spain and otherEuropean countries before and during World War II, from Latin America'sSouthern Cone in the 1970s, and from Central America since the beginning of the 1980s.[640] However, in recent years refugees who solicit asylum are usually treated as if they were just immigrants, with exhaustive administrative processes.[640] The southern border of Mexico has experienced a significant increase in legal and illegal flows since the 1990s, in particular for migrants seeking to transit Mexico to reach the U.S.[641]José Luis Soberanes, president of theNational Human Rights Commission, condemned the repressing policy implemented by theMexican government against illegal immigrants who cross the country's southern border.[642]PresidentCalderón modified the "General Law on Population" to derogate some penalties against immigrants like jail time, instead imposing fines of up to US$500 on illegal immigrants.[643]
^abcdPolitical Constitution of the United Mexican States (February 5, 1917)."Article 89, Section 10"(PDF) (in Spanish). Chamber of Deputies. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on September 16, 2008. RetrievedMarch 28, 2009.
^abInternal Rules of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (August 10, 2001)."Article 2, Section 1" (in Spanish). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived fromthe original on June 11, 2008. RetrievedMarch 28, 2009.
^abSalaverry, Jorge (March 11, 1988)."Evolution of Mexican Foreign Policy". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on March 13, 2009. RetrievedMarch 28, 2009.
^Organization of Ibero-American States."Members" (in Spanish). OEI official website.Archived from the original on December 16, 2022. RetrievedApril 6, 2009.
^OPANAL."Members". OPANAL official website. Archived fromthe original on August 14, 2009. RetrievedApril 6, 2009.
^Paweł Bożyk (2006). "Newly Industrialized Countries".Globalization and the Transformation of Foreign Economic Policy. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 164.ISBN0-7546-4638-6.
^Mauro F. Guillén (2003). "Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor".The Limits of Convergence. Princeton University Press. pp. 126 (Table 5.1).ISBN0-691-11633-4.
^Notimex (February 18, 2008)."México aún no reconoce a Kosovo" (in Spanish). CNN Expansión. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011. RetrievedApril 4, 2009.
^Gustavo Iruegas (April 27, 2007)."Adiós a la neutralidad".La Jornada (in Spanish).Archived from the original on February 27, 2018. RetrievedApril 4, 2009.
^Libro amarillo correspondiente al año ...: presentado al Congreso Nacional en sus sesiones ordinarias de ... por el titular despacho (in Spanish). Venezuela. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. 2003. pp. 528–529.
^Informe de labores - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1973. p. 27.
^abcdefghijklmnopqrInforme de labores. Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1975. p. 39.
^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagInforme de labores - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores (in Spanish). Mexico. Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 1976. pp. 26 and 36–37.
^Comparecencia del Secretario de Relaciones Exteriores, Lic. Fernando Solana Morales ante el Senado de la República Mexicana, diciembre 4 de 1990 (in Spanish). Senado de la República, LIV Legislatura. 1990. p. 38.
^Consejo Mexicano de Asuntos Internacionales."Organizaciones Afiliadas" (in Spanish). Official website. Archived fromthe original on March 3, 2009. RetrievedApril 9, 2009.
^abcdef"Inicio".embamex.sre.gob.mx.Archived from the original on November 23, 2021. RetrievedJune 20, 2023.
^abcMinistry of Foreign Affairs."Bilateral relations". Mexican Embassy in Argentina. Archived fromthe original on July 17, 2011. RetrievedApril 16, 2009.
^"Inicio".Embamex.sre.gob.mx.Archived from the original on February 11, 2017. RetrievedSeptember 18, 2016.
^abcdeBrazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs."Bilateral relations" (in Spanish). Brazilian Embassy in Mexico. Archived fromthe original on February 2, 2009. RetrievedApril 9, 2009.
^abcAduanas México."Tratados de Libre Comercio"(PDF) (in Spanish). Servicio de Administración Tributaria (SAT). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on April 7, 2009. RetrievedApril 9, 2009.
^Hora actual Chile: 16.41 hrs. México: 14.41 hrs (June 20, 2016)."Embajada de Chile en México".Chileabroad.gov.cl. Archived fromthe original on November 29, 2014. RetrievedSeptember 18, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"Inicio".Embamex.sre.gob.mx.Archived from the original on February 19, 2015. RetrievedSeptember 18, 2016.
^Congress of the U.S. (October 26, 2006)."Secure Fence Act of 2006". The Library of Congress. Archived fromthe original on September 4, 2015. RetrievedApril 5, 2009.
^abMinistry of Foreign Affairs."Bilateral Relations" (in Spanish). Mexican Embassy in France. Archived fromthe original on July 17, 2011. RetrievedApril 14, 2009.
^abMinistry of Foreign Affairs."Diplomatic relations"(PDF) (in Spanish). Mexican Embassy in Germany. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on April 7, 2009. RetrievedApril 15, 2009.
^"Mexico: Netherlands And Mexican Regulations To The Netherlands – Mexico Treaty Announced".Deloitte & Touche. September 23, 1997.Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. RetrievedJune 6, 2009.In a press release dated 14 March 1997, the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announced the Netherlands and Mexican regulations under the Netherlands – Mexico tax treaty and protocol, both of 27 September 1993. The Mexican regulations deal with the formalities to be observed by residents of the Netherlands in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties.
^"Mexico, Netherlands amend treaty to curb tax evasion".Xinhua. 2008. Archived fromthe original on October 24, 2012. RetrievedJune 6, 2009.Mexico and the Netherlands modified a tax treaty signed in 1993 in a bid to strength cooperation to curb tax evasion, Mexican Treasury and Public Credit Ministry said on Friday.
^abMexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs."Bilateral Relations" (in Spanish). Mexican Embassy in Spain. Archived fromthe original on May 26, 2001. RetrievedApril 13, 2009.
^Central Intelligence Agency (2008)."Illicit drugs". CIA: the World Fact Book. Archived fromthe original on December 29, 2010. RetrievedApril 12, 2009.
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Pereña-García, Mercedes (2001).Las Relaciones Diplomáticas de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 94.ISBN968-856-917-8.
Velázquez Flores, Rafael (2007).Factores, Bases y Fundamentos de la Política Exterior de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 331.ISBN970-722-473-8.
Alponte, Juan María (1993).La Política Exterior de México en el Nuevo Orden Mundial : Antología de Principios y Tesis. FCE, p. 428.ISBN968-16-4167-1.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005)La Política Exterior Mexicana en la Transición. FCE, SRE, p. 281.ISBN968-16-7745-5.
Lajous Vargas, Roberta (2000)Los Retos de la Política Exterior de México en el Siglo XXI. SRE, p. 560.ISBN968-810-621-6.
El Colegio de México (2007).Historia General de México: Versión 2000. El Colegio de México, Centro de Estudios Históricos, p. 1103.ISBN968-12-0969-9.
Selee, Andrew D. (2007).More Than Neighbors: An Overview of Mexico and U.S.-Mexican Relations. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, p. 43.ISBN1-933549-26-2.
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