Aflux tube is a generally tube-like (cylindrical) region of space containing amagnetic field, B, such that the cylindrical sides of the tube are everywhere parallel to the magneticfield lines. It is a graphical visual aid for visualizing a magnetic field. Since no magnetic flux passes through the sides of the tube, the flux through any cross section of the tube is equal, and the flux entering the tube at one end is equal to the flux leaving the tube at the other. Both the cross-sectional area of the tube and the magnetic field strength may vary along the length of the tube, but themagnetic flux inside is always constant.A flux tube in which the field is twisted is termed aflux rope.

As used inastrophysics, a flux tube generally means an area of space through which a strong magnetic field passes, in which the behavior of matter (usuallyionized gas or plasma) is strongly influenced by the field. They are commonly found aroundstars, including theSun, which has manyflux tubes on scales up to megameters in scale.Flux ropes appear to be essential incoronal mass ejections^[1]Sunspots are also associated with larger flux tubes of 2500 km diameter.^[1]Planets also have flux tubes threading theirmagnetospheres; a well-known example is the flux tube betweenJupiter and its moonIo.

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Theflux of avector field passing through any closed orientable surface is thesurface integral of the field over the surface. For example, for a vector field consisting of thevelocity of a volume of liquid in motion, and an imaginary surface within the liquid, the flux is the volume of liquid passing through the surface per unit time.

A flux tube can be defined passing through anyclosed,orientable surface${\displaystyle S_1}$ in avector field${\displaystyle \mathbf{F}}$, as the set of all points on thefield lines passing through the boundary of${\displaystyle S_1}$. This set forms a hollow tube. The tube follows the field lines, possibly turning, twisting, and changing its cross sectional size and shape as the field lines converge or diverge. Since no field lines pass through the tube walls there is no flux through the walls of the tube, so all the field lines enter and leave through the end surfaces. Thus a flux tube divides all the field lines into two sets; those passing through the inside of the tube, and those outside. Consider the volume bounded by the tube and any two surfaces${\displaystyle S_1}$ and${\displaystyle S_2}$ intersecting it. If the field${\displaystyle \mathbf{F}}$ has sources or sinks within the tube the flux out of this volume will be nonzero. However, if the field isdivergenceless (solenoidal,${\displaystyle \mathrm{div}\mathbf{F}=0}$) then from thedivergence theorem the sum of the flux leaving the volume through these two surfaces will be zero, so the flux leaving through${\displaystyle S_2}$ will be equal to the flux entering through${\displaystyle S_1}$. In other words, the flux within the tube through any surface intersecting the tube is equal, the tube encloses a constant quantity of flux along its length. The strength (magnitude) of the vector field, and the cross sectional area of the tube varies along its length, but the surface integral of the field over any surface spanning the tube is equal.

Since fromMaxwell's equations (specificallyGauss's law for magnetism)magnetic fields are divergenceless, magnetic flux tubes have this property, so flux tubes are mainly used as an aid in visualizing magnetic fields. However flux tubes can also be useful for visualizing other vector fields in regions of zero divergence, such aselectric fields in regions where there are no charges and gravitational fields in regions where there is no mass.

Inparticle physics, thehadron particles that make up all matter, such as neutrons and protons, are composed of more basic particles calledquarks, which are bound together by thin flux tubes ofstrong nuclear force field. The flux tube model is important in explaining the so-calledcolor confinement mechanism, why quarks are never seen separately in particle experiments.

• Flux rope: Twisted magnetic flux tube.^[1]
• Fibril field: Magnetic flux tube that does not have a magnetic field outside the tube.^[1]

In 1861,James Clerk Maxwell gave rise to the concept of a flux tube inspired byMichael Faraday's work in electrical and magnetic behavior in his paper titled "On Physical Lines of Force".^[2] Maxwell described flux tubes as:

If upon any surface which cuts the lines of fluid motion we draw a closed curve, and if from every point of this curve we draw lines of motion, these lines of motion will generate a tubular surface which we may call atube of fluid motion.^[3]

The flux tube's strength,${\displaystyle F}$, is defined to be themagnetic flux through a surface${\displaystyle S}$ intersecting the tube, equal to thesurface integral of the magnetic field${\displaystyle \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{x})}$ over${\displaystyle S}$

$${\displaystyle F={\int }_S\mathbf{B}\cdot \hat{\mathbf{n}}dS}$$

Since the magnetic field issolenoidal, as defined inMaxwell's equations (specificallyGauss' law for magnetism):${\displaystyle \mathbf{\nabla }\cdot \mathbf{B}=0}$.^[4] the strength is constant at any surface along a flux tube. Under the condition that thecross-sectional area,${\displaystyle A}$, of the flux tube is small enough that the magnetic field is approximately constant,${\displaystyle F}$ can be approximated as${\displaystyle F\approx BA}$.^[4] Therefore, if the cross sectional area of the tube decreases along the tube from${\displaystyle A_1}$ to${\displaystyle A_2}$, then the magnetic field strength must increase proportionally from${\displaystyle B_1}$ to${\displaystyle B_2}$ in order to satisfy the condition of constant flux F.^[5]

$${\displaystyle \frac{B_2}{B_1}=\frac{A_1}{A_2}}$$

Inmagnetohydrodynamics, Alfvén's theorem states that the magnetic flux through a surface, such as the surface of a flux tube, moving along with aperfectly conducting fluid is conserved. In other words, the magnetic field is constrained to move with the fluid or is "frozen-in" to the fluid.

This can be shown mathematically for a flux tube using theinduction equation of a perfectly conducting fluid

$${\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\partial }\mathbf{B}}{\mathrm{\partial }t}=\mathbf{\nabla }\times (\mathbf{v}\times \mathbf{B})}$$

where${\displaystyle \mathbf{B}}$ is the magnetic field and${\displaystyle \mathbf{v}}$ is the velocity field of the fluid. The change in magnetic flux over time through any open surface of the flux tube${\displaystyle \mathbf{S}}$ enclosed by${\displaystyle C}$ with a differential line element${\displaystyle d\mathit{\ell }}$ can be written as

$${\displaystyle \frac{d{\mathrm{\Phi }}_B}{dt}={\int }_S\frac{\mathrm{\partial }\mathbf{B}}{\mathrm{\partial }t}\cdot d\mathbf{S}+{\oint }_C\mathbf{B}\cdot \mathbf{v}\times d\mathit{\ell }.}$$

Using the induction equation gives

$${\displaystyle \frac{d{\mathrm{\Phi }}_B}{dt}={\int }_S\mathbf{\nabla }\times (\mathbf{v}\times \mathbf{B})\cdot d\mathbf{S}+{\oint }_C\mathbf{B}\cdot \mathbf{v}\times d\mathit{\ell }}$$

which can be rewritten usingStokes' theorem and an elementary vector identity on the first and second term, respectively, to give^[6]

$${\displaystyle {\int }_S\mathbf{B}\cdot d\mathbf{S}=\text{const}.}$$

Inideal magnetohydrodynamics, if a cylindrical flux tube of length${\displaystyle L_0}$ is compressed while the length of tube stays the same, themagnetic field and the density of the tube increase with the same proportionality. If a flux tube with a configuration of a magnetic field of${\displaystyle B_0}$ and aplasma density of${\displaystyle {\rho }_0}$ confined to the tube is compressed by a scalar value defined as${\displaystyle \lambda }$, the new magnetic field and density are given by:^[4]

If, known as transverse compression,${\displaystyle B}$ and${\displaystyle \rho }$ increase and are scaled the same while transverse expansion decreases${\displaystyle B}$ and${\displaystyle \rho }$ by the same value and proportion where${\displaystyle B/\rho }$ is constant.^[4]

Extending the length of the flux tube by${\displaystyle {\lambda }^{\ast }}$ gives a new length of${\displaystyle L={\lambda }^{\ast }{L}_0}$ while the density of the tube remains the same,${\displaystyle {\rho }_0}$, which then results in the magnetic field strength increasing by${\displaystyle {\lambda }^{\ast }{B}_0}$. Reducing the length of the tubes results in a decrease of the magnetic field's strength.^[4]

In magnetohydrostatic equilibrium, the following condition is met for the equation of motion of theplasma confined to the flux tube:^[4]

$${\displaystyle 0=-\mathbf{\nabla }p+\mathbf{j}\times \mathbf{B}-\rho \mathbf{g}}$$

where

• ${\displaystyle p}$ is the plasma pressure
• ${\displaystyle \mathbf{j}}$ is the current density of the plasma
• ${\displaystyle \rho \mathbf{g}}$ is thegravitational force

With the magnetohydrostatic equilibrium condition met, a cylindrical flux tube's plasma pressure of${\displaystyle p(R)}$ is given by the following relation written incylindrical coordinates with${\displaystyle R}$ as the distance from the axis radially:^[4]

$${\displaystyle 0=\frac{dp}{dR}+\frac{d}{dR}\left(\frac{B_{\varphi }^2+B_z^2}{2\mu }\right)+\frac{B_{\varphi }^2}{\mu R}}$$

The second term in the above equation gives themagnetic pressure force while the third term represents themagnetic tension force.^[4] The field line's twist around the axis from one end of the tube of length${\displaystyle L}$ to the other end is given by:^[4]

$${\displaystyle \mathrm{\Phi }(R)=\frac{L{B}_{\varphi }(R)}{R{B}_z(R)}}$$

Examples of solar flux tubes includesunspots and intense magnetic tubes in thephotosphere and the field around thesolar prominence andcoronal loops in thecorona.^[4]

Sunspots occur when small flux tubes combine into a large flux tube that breaks the surface of thephotosphere.^[1] The large flux tube of the sunspot has a field intensity of around 3 kG with a diameter of typically 4000 km.^[1] There are extreme cases of when the large flux tubes have diameters of${\displaystyle 6\times {10}^4}$ km with a field strength of 3 kG.^[1]Sunspots can continue to grow as long as there is a constant supply of newflux from small flux tubes on the surface of the Sun.^[1] Themagnetic field within the flux tube can be compressed by decreasing the gas pressure inside and therefore the internal temperature of the tube while maintaining a constant pressure outside.^[1]

Intense magnetic tubes are isolated flux tubes that have diameters of 100 to 300 km with an overall field strength of 1 to 2 kG and a flux of around3×10⁹ Wb.^[4] These flux tubes are concentrated strong magnetic fields that are found between solargranules.^[7] The magnetic field causes theplasma pressure in the flux tube to decrease, known as the plasma density depletion region.^[7] If there is a significant difference in the temperatures in the flux tube and the surroundings, there is a decrease in plasma pressure as well as a decrease in the plasma density causing some of the magnetic field to escape the plasma.^[7]

Plasma that is trapped within magnetic flux tubes that are attached to thephotosphere, referred to as footpoints, create a loop-like structure known as acoronal loop.^[8] The plasma inside the loop has a higher temperature than the surroundings causing the pressure and density of the plasma to increase.^[8] Thesecoronal loops get their characteristic highluminosity and ranges of shapes from the behavior of the magnetic flux tube.^[8] These flux tubes confine plasma and are characterized as isolated. The confined magnetic field strength varies from 0.1 to 10 G with diameters ranging from 200 to 300 km.^[8][9]

The result of emerging twisted flux tubes from the interior of theSun cause twisted magnetic structures in thecorona, which then lead tosolar prominences.^[10]Solar prominences are modeled using twisted magnetic flux tubes known as flux ropes.^[11]

Magnetized planets have an area above theirionospheres which traps energetic particles andplasma alongmagnetic fields, referred to asmagnetospheres.^[12] The extension of themagnetosphere away from the sun known as amagnetotail is modeled as magnetic flux tubes.^[12]Mars andVenus both have strongmagnetic fields resulting in flux tubes from thesolar wind gathering at high altitudes of the ionosphere on the sun side of the planets and causing the flux tubes to distort along themagnetic field lines creating flux ropes.^[12] Particles from thesolar windmagnetic field lines can transfer to themagnetic field lines of a planet'smagnetosphere through the processes ofmagnetic reconnection that occurs when a flux tube from thesolar wind and a flux tube from themagnetosphere in opposite field directions get close to one another.^[12]

Flux tubes that occur frommagnetic reconnection forms into adipole-like configuration around the planet where plasma flow occurs.^[12] An example of this case is the flux tube betweenJupiter and its moonIo approximately 450 km in diameter at the points closest toJupiter.^[13]

• QCD string, sometimes called a flux tube
• Flux transfer event
• Birkeland current
• Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
• Marklund convection

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