Aflavoring (orflavouring),[a] also known asflavor (orflavour) orflavorant, is afood additive used to improve thetaste orsmell of food. It changes theperceptual impression offood as determined primarily by thechemoreceptors of thegustatory andolfactory systems.[1][2] Along with additives, other components like sugars determine the taste of food.
A flavoring is defined as a substance that gives another substance taste, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to becomesweet,sour,tangy, etc. Although the term, in common language, denotes the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same term is used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell.
Owing to the high cost, or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorings are "nature-identical", which means that they are thechemical equivalent of natural flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from source materials. Identification of components of natural foods, for example a raspberry, may be done using technology such asheadspace techniques, so the flavorist can imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present. In the EU legislation, the term "natural-identical flavoring" does not exist. The legislation is specified on what is a "flavoring" and a "natural flavoring".
A flavoring is avolatile additive that improves the taste or smell of food. They work primarily via thesense of smell. In legislation, substances that exclusively have a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings. These usually includeflavor enhancers,sweeteners,acidulants andsalt substitutes.
There are different ways to divide flavorings. First by the way they are produced. A vanilla flavoring can for example be obtained naturally by extraction fromvanilla seeds, or one can start with cheap chemicals and try to make a similar substance artificially (in this examplevanillin). A nature-identical flavoring is chemically an exact copy of the original substance and can be either natural or artificial.[3] Vanillin is not obtained from the vanilla plant nor an exact copy of vanilla, but a synthesized nature-identical component of the vanilla aroma. Vanillin is not vanilla, but gives a food a vanilla aroma.
The second division is by the effect they have on smell (aroma) or taste of the food. The effect can be the aroma of a specificfruit,almond,butter,smoke from wood, or some fantasy flavor. The aroma of the flavoring may resemble that of the source, or imitate a particular unrelated food. It may for example be the extract from vanilla seeds and smell like vanilla, or it may be the extract of a potato and smell like a banana. Irrespective of the effect, the flavoring may be natural or artificial. It may for example be the natural tissue of an animal with the aroma of a citrus, or just a chemical that smells like a citrus.
Flavorings can be divided into three principal types: "natural flavorings", "nature-identical flavorings", and "artificial flavorings".[3] In the United States, they are traditionally divided into natural and artificial flavorings, where the latter includes nature-identical flavorings.[4] In contrast, European legislation does not distinguish natural and nature-identical flavorings, while only the term "natural" is subject to some regulation.
Natural flavorings are ediblearoma compounds that are found innature, notmade by man.In nature, they always occur with other natural substances that also may be flavorings. Natural flavorings can be isolated on industrial scale, to be used as an additive.
Techniques to obtain natural flavorings include the use ofenzymes and/ormicro organisms. European legislators have accepted flavorings produced by manmadegenetically modified organisms (GMOs) – not found in nature – as natural flavorings.
Nature-identical flavorings are human-made aroma compounds that are chemically identical to some substance that can be found in nature. They are synthesized fromchemicals or isolated by means of chemical processes.
Because nature-identical flavorings can be produced at low costs, the food industry will argue that nature-identical and natural flavorings are exactly the same. They have the advantage to be chemically pure, withoutallergens that may be coupled with natural flavorings. On the other hand, they are missing thesynergy of other substances present in their natural origin, so they may lack subtlety.
Artificial flavorings are synthesized from chemical substances by man and are not found in nature. Their sensory characteristics mostly resemble that of natural or nature-identical flavorings.
Of the three chemical senses,smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor.[5] Aromas are thevolatile components of the food. The aroma is determined by thearoma compounds it contains and the personal ability to detect them. While a flavoring primarily acts through theolfactory system, it also affects thetaste at the same time.
Along with additives, other components like sugars determine the taste of food. Thetrigeminal nerves, which detect chemicalirritants in themouth andthroat, as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall perception of food.[citation needed]
Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.[6]
Unlike smelling, which occurs uponinhalation, the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in theexhalation phase ofbreathing and is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth.[7]
The taste of a food product is not only determined by the aromas present in the original material and added flavorings, but also by accompanying substances like flavor enhancers,sweeteners,acidulants andsalt substitutes.Polyols likesorbitol andmaltitol, are carriers in flavorings, but they themselves also have a sweet taste.
Even the color of food can affect one's experience of the taste significantly.[8]In one study, adding morered color to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration.[9] Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; for example, different colors of the U.S. productFroot Loops cereal and most brands ofGummy Bears often use the same flavorings.[10][11]
Flavor enhancers or taste enhancers, which areumami or "savory" compounds, are themselves not flavorings, but they intensify the taste of the food. They are largely based onamino acids andnucleotides. These are typically used assodium orcalciumsalts.[12] Umami flavorings recognized and approved by the European Union include:[13]
| Acid salts | Description |
|---|---|
| Glutamic acid salts | This amino acid's sodium salt,monosodium glutamate (MSG), is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono- and diglutamate salts are also commonly used. |
| Glycine salts | Simple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers |
| Guanylic acid (GMP) salts | Nucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers |
| Inosinic acid (IMP) salts | Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers |
| 5'-ribonucleotide salts | A blend of GMP and IMP salts ("I+G"), generally in thedisodium ribonucleotides form; typically combined with amino acids flavor enhancers |
Under the EU legislation, substances which have exclusively a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings (Article 2, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008.[14]
Also flavor enhancers are not considered flavorings under the EU legislation but additives (Point 14 of Annex I of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008).[15]
EU legislation defines several types of flavorings:[16]
In the EU, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 on flavorings and certain food ingredients with flavoring properties for use in/on foods, i.e. the EU Flavouring Regulation, was adopted on 16 December 2008 and entered into force on 20 January 2009. It applies from 20 January 2011.Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 lays down general requirements for safe use of flavorings and provides definitions for different types of flavorings. The Regulation sets out substances for which an evaluation and approval is required. The Union list of flavoring substances, approved for use in and on foods, was adopted on 1 October 2012 and was introduced in Annex I of this Regulation[17]
The UK followed the above EU legislation which remained in force until 31 December 2020. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 provided that from 1 January 2021, this directly applicable EU legislation was converted into UK law with minor corrections to enable it to operate effectively as UK law. These corrections were made by Statutory Instrument 2019 No. 860.
The UK Food industry, in collaboration with the flavoring industry, has developed guidance on what to consider when declaring a pictorial representation of a food ingredient on the label of a pre-packed product.
In the United States, flavorings are regulated inTitle 21 of theCode of Federal Regulations. They are divided into artificial and natural flavorings.[4]
In Australia and New Zealand regulation of flavorings is covered by theAustralia New Zealand Food Standards Code of November 2000, entered into force in December 2002.[3]
Natural flavorings are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological, or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.
Nature-identical flavorings are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically andorganoleptically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.
Artificial flavorings are "flavouring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed."
In the EU, in order to be labeled as natural flavoring substance, many conditions have to be fulfilled: "Natural flavouring substance" shall mean a flavoring substance obtained by appropriate physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable, animal or microbiological origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by one or more of the traditional food preparation processes listed in Annex II. Natural flavoring substances correspond to substances that are naturally present and have been identified in nature (Article 3).[14]
More detailed information on the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations can be found on the European Flavour Association (EFFA) Guidance Document.[18]
UK Food Law defines a natural flavor as:
A flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by physical, enzymatic, or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other than one normally so used[19]
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavoring" as:
Theessential oil, oleoresin, essence, or extractive, protein hydrolysate,distillate, or any product of roasting, heating, or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit, or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf, or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional.[4]
Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal byproducts.[citation needed] Some flavor ingredients, such asgelatin, are produced from animal products. Some, such asglycerin, can be derived from either animal or vegetable sources. And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol. Many groups such asJews,Jains,Hindus, andMuslims, as well asvegans follow dietary restrictions which disallow the use of animal byproducts and/or alcohol in certain contexts. In many Western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewishkosherpareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish).The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies worldwide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings).[citation needed]
Similarly, persons with knownsensitivities orallergies to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.[20] Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves commonallergens, such asdairy,soy,[21]sesame,[22]eggs, andnuts.[23]In the EU, nevertheless, this information is available in the labeling. Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, states in article 9 that any ingredient or processing aid listed in Annex II (of the aforementioned Regulation) or derived from a substance or product listed in Annex II causing allergies or intolerances used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and still present in the finished product, even if in an altered form must be included in the labeling.[24]
Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and flavor chemists (flavorists) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorings consist ofesters, which are often described as being sweet or fruity.[25]
The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally. It has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.[26] Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.[26]
Food andbeverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products), or changes in formula or processing for existing products. In 2011, about US$10.6 billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed inultra-processed food andconvenience food.[27]
The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavoredjellies,soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances.
Most flavors represent a mixture ofaroma compounds, the raw material that is produced by flavor companies. In rare cases, a single synthetic compound is used in pure form. Artificialvanilla flavorsvanillin andethylvanillin are a notable exception, as well as the artificialstrawberry flavor (ethyl methylphenylglycidate). The ubiquitous "green apple" aroma is based onhexyl acetate.[28]
Some flavors are relatively multifaceted. For example, the basic aroma of cooked meat is formed by a combination ofMaillard reaction,lipid peroxidation, and degradation of sulfur-containing compounds such asthiamine and cysteine.[29] With this understanding, an artificial chicken flavor can be made from ingredients as simple as glucose, salt, cysteine, andarachidonic acid: when heated in a water solution they undergo these three reactions to produce the desired flavor. (Such a flavor produced during the preparation process from precursor compounds is called a "process flavor"). Small tweaks to the mixture can instead produce a beef flavor. This kind of basic meat flavoring has been known since the 1970s.[30] Of course, these four chemicals only mimic a small number of possible reactions out of the many reactions possible among the complex flavor precursor chemicals found in meat. For a more realistically complex aroma, natural feedstocks such asyeast extract,hydrolyzed vegetable protein, and spices can be used to expand the number of possible reactions. They also contribute peptides, free amino acids, and nucleic acid metabolites that all play a role in the natural taste of meat.[29][31]
Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors.[32] Inchemical analysis of flavors,solid phase extraction,solid phase microextraction, and headspacegas chromatography are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by variousmass spectrometric techniques.[33] Aflavor lexicon can aid the development of objective language for food.
