| Flamingos | |
|---|---|
 | |
| James's flamingos (P. jamesi) | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Phoenicopteriformes |
| Family: | Phoenicopteridae Bonaparte, 1831 |
| Genera | |
 | |
| Global distribution of flamingos | |
Flamingos orflamingoes[a] (/fləˈmɪŋɡoʊz/) are a type ofwading bird in thefamilyPhoenicopteridae, which is the only extant family in the orderPhoenicopteriformes. There are four flamingo species distributed throughout the Americas (including the Caribbean), and two species native toAfro-Eurasia.
A group of flamingoes is called a "flamboyance",[2] or a "stand".[3]
The nameflamingo comes fromPortuguese orSpanishflamengo'flame-colored'; in turn, the word comes fromProvençalflamenc – a combination offlama'flame' and a Germanic-like suffix-ing. The word may also have been influenced by the Spanish ethnonymflamenco'Fleming' or'Flemish'.The name of the genus,Phoenicopterus, is from Ancient Greek φοινικόπτερος (phoinikopteros) 'crimson/red-feathered';[4] other genera names includePhoeniconaias, which means'crimson/redwater nymph (or naiad)', andPhoenicoparrus, which means'crimson/red bird (though, an unknown bird ofomen)'.
The family Phoenicopteridae was introduced by the French zoologistCharles Lucien Bonaparte in 1831, withPhoenicopterus as thetype genus.[5][6]
Traditionally, the long-leggedCiconiiformes, probably aparaphyletic assemblage, have been considered the flamingos' closest relatives and the family was included in the order. Usually, theibises andspoonbills of theThreskiornithidae were considered their closest relatives within this order. Earlier genetic studies, such as those ofCharles Sibley and colleagues, also supported this relationship.[7] Relationships to thewaterfowl were considered as well,[8] especially as flamingos areparasitized byfeather lice of the genusAnaticola, which are otherwise exclusively found on ducks and geese.[9] The peculiarpresbyornithids were used to argue for a close relationship between flamingos, waterfowl, and waders.[10] A 2002 paper concluded they arewaterfowl,[11] but a 2014 comprehensive study of bird orders found that flamingos and grebes are not waterfowl, but rather are part ofColumbea, along withdoves,sandgrouse, andmesites.[12]
-_Breeding_plumage_W2_IMG_8770.jpg)
Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation withgrebes,[13][14][15] while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least 11 morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified on flamingos, but not on grebes.[16] The fossilpalaelodids can be considered evolutionarily, and ecologically, intermediate between flamingos and grebes.[17]
For the grebe-flamingoclade, thetaxonMirandornithes ("miraculous birds" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority.[17]
Thecladogram below showing the phylogenetic relationships between the six extant flamingo species is based on a study by Roberto Frias-Soler and collaborators that was published in 2022.[18]
| Phoenicopteriformes |
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| Phoenicopteridae |
Six extant flamingo species are recognized by most sources, and were formerly placed in one genus (have common characteristics) –Phoenicopterus. As a result of a 2014 publication,[19] the family was reclassified into two genera.[20] In 2020, the family had three recognized genera, according toHBW.[21]
| Image | Species | Geographic location | |
|---|---|---|---|
 | Greater flamingo(Phoenicopterus roseus) | Old World | Parts of Africa, S. Europe and S. and SW Asia (most widespread flamingo). |
 | Lesser flamingo(Phoeniconaias minor) | Africa (e.g.Great Rift Valley) to NWIndia (most numerous flamingo). | |
 | Chilean flamingo(Phoenicopterus chilensis) | New World | Temperate S. South America. |
 | James's or Puna flamingo(Phoenicoparrus jamesi) | High Andes inPeru,Chile,Bolivia andArgentina. | |
 | Andean flamingo(Phoenicoparrus andinus) | High Andes in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina. | |
 | American or Caribbean flamingo(Phoenicopterus ruber) | Caribbean islands, CaribbeanMexico, southernFlorida,[22]Belize, coastalColombia, northernBrazil,Venezuela andGalápagos Islands. | |
Prehistoric species of flamingo:
Flamingos usually stand on one leg with the other tucked beneath the body. The reason for this behaviour is not fully understood. One theory is that standing on one leg allows the birds to conserve more body heat, given that they spend a significant amount of time wading in cold water.[32] However, the behaviour also takes place in warm water and is also observed in birds that do not typically stand in water. An alternative theory is that standing on one leg reduces the energy expenditure for producing muscular effort to stand and balance on one leg. A study on cadavers showed that the one-legged pose could be held without any muscle activity, while living flamingos demonstrate substantially less body sway in a one-legged posture.[33]
While walking, a flamingo's legs may appear to bend backwards. This appearance is due to the middle joint on their legs being their ankle, not their knee.[34] Flamingos also have webbed feet that aid with swimming and they may stamp their feet in the mud to stir up food from the bottom.[34][35]
Flamingos are capable flyers, and flamingos in captivity often requirewing clipping to prevent escape. A pair of African flamingos which had not yet had their wings clipped escaped from theWichita, Kansas, zoo in 2005. One was spotted in Texas 14 years later. It had been seen previously by birders in Texas, Wisconsin and Louisiana.[36]
Young flamingos hatch with grayish-red plumage, but adults range from light pink to bright red due to aqueous bacteria andbeta-carotene obtained from their food supply. A well-fed, healthy flamingo is more vibrantly colored, thus a more desirable mate; a white or pale flamingo, however, is usually unhealthy or malnourished.Captive flamingos are a notable exception; even if adequately nourished, they may turn a pale pink if they are not fed carotene at levels comparable to the wild.[37]
The greater flamingo is the tallest of the six different species of flamingos, standing at 3.9 to 4.7 feet (1.2 to 1.4 m) with a weight up to 7.7 pounds (3.5 kg), and the shortest flamingo species (the lesser) has a height of 2.6 feet (0.8 m) and weighs 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg). Flamingos can have a wingspan as small as 37 inches (94 cm) to as big as 59 inches (150 cm).[38]
Flamingos can open their bills by raising the upper jaw as well as by dropping the lower.[39]
Flamingos are omnivores whofilter-feed onbrine shrimp andblue-green algae as well as insect larvae, small insects, mollusks and crustaceans. Their bills are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they eat, and are uniquely used upside-down. The filtering of food items is assisted by hairy structures called lamellae, which line the mandibles, and the large, rough-surfaced tongue. The pink or reddish color of flamingos comes fromcarotenoids in their diet of animal and plantplankton. American flamingos are a brighter red color because of the beta carotene availability in their food while the lesser flamingos are a paler pink due to ingesting a smaller amount of this pigment. These carotenoids are broken down into pigments by liver enzymes.[40] The source of this varies by species, and affects the color saturation. Flamingos whose sole diet is blue-green algae are darker than those that get it second-hand by eating animals that have digested blue-green algae.[41]
Though flamingos prefer to drink freshwater, they are equipped with glands under their eyes that remove extra salt from their bodies. This organ allows them to drink saltwater as well.[42]
Flamingos are considered very noisy birds with theirnoises and vocalizations ranging from grunting or growling to nasal honking. Vocalizations play an important role in parent-chick recognition, ritualized displays, and keeping large flocks together. Variations in vocalizations exist in the voices of different species of flamingos.[43][44]
Flamingos are very social birds; they live in colonies whose population can number in the thousands. These large colonies are believed to serve three purposes for the flamingos: avoiding predators, maximizing food intake, and using scarce suitable nesting sites more efficiently.[45] Before breeding, flamingo colonies split into breeding groups of about 15 to 50 birds. Both males and females in these groups perform synchronized ritual displays.[46] The members of a group stand together and display to each other by stretching their necks upwards, then uttering calls while head-flagging, and then flapping their wings.[47] The displays do not seem directed towards an individual, but occur randomly.[47] These displays stimulate "synchronous nesting" (see below) and help pair up those birds that do not already have mates.[46]
Flamingos form strongpair bonds, although in larger colonies, flamingos sometimes change mates, presumably because more mates are available to choose.[48] Flamingo pairs establish and defend nesting territories. They locate a suitable spot on the mudflat to build a nest (the female usually selects the place).[47] Copulation usually occurs during nest building, which is sometimes interrupted by another flamingo pair trying to commandeer the nesting site for their use. Flamingos aggressively defend their nesting sites. Both the male and the female contribute to building the nest, and to protecting the nest and egg.[49] Same-sex pairs have been reported.[50]
After the chicks hatch, the only parental expense is feeding.[51] Both the male and the female feed their chicks with a kind ofcrop milk, produced in glands lining the whole of the upper digestive tract (not just the crop). The hormoneprolactin stimulates production. Crop milk contains both fat and protein, as with mammalian milk, but unlike mammalian milk, it contains no carbohydrates.[52] (Pigeons and doves also produce crop milk, though just in the glands lining the crop, which contains less fat and more protein than flamingo crop milk.)[53]
For the first six days after the chicks hatch, the adults and chicks stay in the nesting sites. At around 7–12 days old, the chicks begin to move out of their nests and explore their surroundings. When they are two weeks old, the chicks congregate in groups, called "microcrèches", and their parents leave them alone. After a while, the microcrèches merge into "crèches" containing thousands of chicks. Chicks that do not stay in their crèches are vulnerable to predators.[54] When young flamingos are around three to three and a half months old, their flight feathers will finish growing in, allowing them to fly.[55]
The first flamingo hatched in a European zoo was aChilean flamingo atZoo Basel in Switzerland in 1958. Since then, over 389 flamingos have grown up in Basel and been distributed to other zoos around the globe.[56]
Greater, agreater flamingo who was at least 83 years old and believed to be the oldest in the world, died at theAdelaide Zoo inAustralia in January 2014.[57]
Zoos have used mirrors to improve flamingo breeding behaviour. The mirrors are thought to give the flamingos the impression that they are in a larger flock than they actually are.[58]
While many different kinds of birds were valued items in Roman food, flamingos were among the most prized in Ancient Roman cuisine. An early reference to their consumption, and especially of their tongues, is found inPliny the Elder, who states in theNatural History:
Latin:phoenicopteri linguam praecipui saporis esse apicius docuit, nepotum omnium altissimus gurges[Translated:]Apicius, that very deepest whirlpool of all ourepicures, has informed us that the tongue of the phœnicopterus is of the most exquisite flavour.
Although a few recipes for flamingos are found in Apicius' extant works, none refer specifically to flamingo tongues. The three flamingo recipes in theDe re coquinaria (On the Subject of Cooking) involve the whole creature:
Suetonius mentions flamingo tongues in hisLife ofVitellius:[62]
Most notorious of all was the dinner given by his brother to celebrate the emperor's arrival inRome, at which two thousand of the choicest fishes and seven thousand birds are said to have been served. He himself eclipsed even this at the dedication of a platter, which on account of its enormous size he called the "Shield ofMinerva, Defender of the City." In this he mingled the livers of pike, the brains ofpheasants andpeacocks, the tongues of flamingoes and themilt oflampreys, brought by his captains andtriremes from the whole empire, fromParthia to theSpanishstrait.
— Suetonius,Life of Vitellius[63]
Martial, the poet, devoted an ironicepigram, alluding to flamingo tongues:
Dat mihi penna rubens nomen; sed lingua gulosis
Nostra sapit: quid, si garrula lingua foret?
[Translated:] My red wing gives me my name; but it is my tongue that is considered savoury by epicures. What, if my tongue had been able to sing?
There is also a mention of flamingo brains in a later, highly contentious source, detailing, in the life ofElagabalus, a food item not apparently to his liking as much ascamels' heels and parrot tongues, in the belief that the latter was aprophylactic:
In imitation of Apicius he frequently ate camels-heels and also cocks-combs taken from the living birds, and the tongues of peacocks andnightingales, because he was told that one who ate them was immune from the plague. He served to the palace-attendants, moreover, huge platters heaped up with theviscera ofmullets, and flamingo-brains,partridge-eggs,thrush-brains, and the heads of parrots, pheasants, and peacocks.[66]
