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Aflamen (plural,flamines)[1] was a specific type ofpriest ("sacerdos") in theancient Roman religion and one of the oldest classes of the Roman priesthood, with origins likely predating theRepublican era. Theseflamines, of which there were fifteen, were high-ranking members of theCollege of Pontiffs who administered and oversaw the various cults of the state-sponsored religion, both collectively and individually. The most important of these were the threeflamines maiores ("major priests"), who each served one of the gods of theArchaic Triad:Jupiter,Mars, andQuirinus. The remaining twelveflamines minores ("lesser priests") served various minor deities, of whom little is definitively known, with two of their identities even being forgotten. While these originalflamines lost most of their cultural and religious significance by the dawn of theEmpire, the termflamen went on to be used in reference to priests of the cults of deified Emperors (divus).
The etymology offlamen remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable.[2] The term is traditionally connected with theProto-Germanic verb*blōtaną ("to sacrifice"; cf.Gothicblotan), by positing aProto-Indo-European stem*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n- (or*bʰleh₂g-m(e)n-), which could have originally meant "sacrifice".[3][4][5] However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlierflă-men,flăd-men orflăg-smen.[4][5]
Indo-European scholarG. Dumézil attempted to link the term to theSanskrit wordbrahman.[a] Dumézil himself notes that the etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and the cognates have not been universally accepted by modern scholars.[7][5][b]Andrew Sihler considers the claim thatflamen might be acognate of theVedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothicblotan and via Proto-Indo-European*bʰleh₂d-m(e)n- is equally plausible.[2]
By the time of the religious reformations initiated by EmperorAugustus, the origins and functions of a number of gods resident in Rome were considered confusing and archaic, even to the Romans themselves. The age and relative obscurity of some of the deities assigned aflamen (such asFalacer,Palatua, andVolturnus) suggests that this class of the priesthood dates back to the early days of Rome, at least as far back as theRoman Kingdom. The Romans themselves even credited their foundation toNuma Pompilius, the legendary secondKing of Rome. According to the historianLivy, in order to fulfill the more intensive religious duties originally performed by the King, Numa created the offices of the threeflamines maiores and assigned each a fine robe of office and acurule seat.[11] Theflamines were circumscribed by a series of highly restrictivetaboos, as in the case of theflamen Dialis, the stability of Rome itself was believed to depend on his continued purity and holiness. In fact, the most detailed surviving records of theflamines often focus on the practices and traditions associated with theflamen Dialis, the highest-ranking and most significant of theflamines.
Some modern scholars have raised the possibility that the roles of the Romanflamines may have extended beyond simply overseeing the cults of their respective deities, even hypothesizing that they may have represented and provided religious services to certain segments of the Roman population. This theory is supported by the existence of aflamen among theArval Brethren (theflamen Arvalium), as well as theflamines of the thirtycuriae that divided early Rome (flamines curiales). Based on descriptions from some Roman sources, the threeflamines maiores may have collectively represented the entire Roman populace, as evidenced by their common sacrifices to the goddess of faithfulnessFides. By the Republican era, themaiores were collectively invoked both in treaties composed by thefetiales and in thedevotio oath taken by generals during times of unrest.[12]
By the Imperial era, the termflamen seems to have mostly been used in reference to the priests of theImperial cult, whose regulations and standards appear to have been modeled after those of theflamen Dialis. This new incarnation of the priesthood aided in the spread and homogenization of the Imperial cult throughout the growing Roman Empire, with priests being assigned to serve certain cities and provinces, and in some regions specifically dedicated to the cult of Augustus (thedivi filius, or more specifically thedivi Iuli filius). While these priests were still given the antiquated title offlamen in most provinces and regions, others used the more general and widely-recognizedsacerdos (plural,sacerdotes), as was the case with theSacerdotes Augustales.
In post-Antiquity, the word "flamen" (plural, "flamens") became a general term for any priest who serves a specific deity.[13]
Since the early days of theflaminates, the Roman populace took an active role in the selection of a newflamen, nominating fellow citizens believed to be worthy of the position. Originally these nominations were handled by theCuriate Assembly, the oldest legislative gathering in the city, ultimately selecting and consecrating each newflamen. However, following the passing of the Roman law "Lex Domitia de sacerdotis" ("TheDomitian Law Regarding the Priesthood") in 104 BC, which formalized the selection processes for Roman priests, nominations for theflaminates were now handled by the more egalitarianTribal Assembly. They would then be provided to thepontifex maximus, the head of thePontifical College, who "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he...[was] fit to serve."[14] After a newflamen (and, formaiores, also his wife) was chosen, they then had to participate in a traditional Roman ceremony known as thecaptio, to ensure the gods would accept this newflamen as their representative to the city. Anaugur would ask the appropriate deities for a blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to those present. These ceremonies were known ascomitia calata ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on theCapitoline Hill.[15]
The tenure of aflamen was expected to be lifelong, but the holder could be forced to resign for committing a breach of duty, as well as for the occurrence of an ill omen while performing their ceremonial obligations, potentially a divine warning that theflamen had fallen out of favor with their patron deity. In certain situations, aflamen maiore could be represented by aproflamen, a member of the College of Pontiffs who was approved to act as substitute (qui vice flaminis fungebatur).[16] In the case of theflamen Dialis, only thepontifex maximus was allowed to fill in for that role.
The office of theflaminate granted its holders considerable privileges in Roman society. Regarding the justice system, if a criminal submitted himself before aflamen on the way to his punishment, the priest could delay his fate until the following day. Other notable benefits granted to theflamines included: exemption from the authority of his father (patria potestas); permission to wear thetoga praetexta; being provided the service of alictor; ownership and use of acurule seat; and the possession of anex officio seat in the Senate.[17]
Theflamines, like the other various religious orders in Rome, were also entrusted with protecting the city's sacred objects. An anecdote recounted by Livy reports that before thesack of Rome in 390 BC, theflamines escaped the city with their relics, after debating whether to bury anything they could not carry near their temple precincts.[18]
To counterbalance these considerable benefits and honors, theflamines were also held to extremely high standards of behavioral and ritual purity, particularly concerning associations with pollution and death.[19] Such standards even extended to the wives of theflamines, known as theflaminicae. For example, theflaminica Dialis was not allowed to wearcalcei morticini ("shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes"), and she was even forbidden from washing or combing her hair on certain days of religious significance.[20] These and many other regulations were intended to ensure her continued role as guardian of the fertility of Rome's entire populace.
Another disadvantage specific to theflamen andflaminica Dialis was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans",[21] as these items were symbolically associated with pollution and death.[20] They were also required "to remain free of physical and social constraints".[22]
Many modern scholars believe that theflamines maiores bore the majority of these social and ritual regulations, as all holders of the positions were required to be of noble birth, thus already being assigned multiple social rules and expectations to follow. Conversely, as theflamines minores were all commoners, it would likely be considered unrealistic to hold them to a standard that was above their social strata.
While theflamines maiores were highly respected and vital members of the Roman priesthood, their own office could be weaponized against them, as one could potentially be nominated to the position by rivals to halt their political or military advancement, as the restrictions associated with the office were guaranteed to do. For example, they were forbidden from riding horses, as well as from leaving the city of Rome for longer than a day; both mandates would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army.[23] Furthermore, theflamines were explicitly barred from running for or holding any political office, a unique distinction from other segments of the Roman priesthood who could still pursue political careers, even using their positions as an advantage.[24]
Eventually, many of the more restrictive taboos were loosened so that only theflamen Dialis was required to adhere to them. This may explain why, following the suicide offlamen DialisLucius Cornelius Merula in 87 BC, theflaminate remained vacant for over 70 years, until the Imperial reign of Augustus. Coincidentally, a teenageJulius Caesar was once nominated to fill this vacancy.
The three majorflaminates required the service of a married couple that came from an elitepatrician family. Both parents of aflamen, as well as theflamen himself, had to have been married through the ancient ceremony ofconfarreatio, during which the bride would be passed from themanus (hand) of her father to that of her husband, ritually transferring ownership of the bride.[25] This parental criterion only applied to theflamen, as his wife would be considered part of his family through their marriage.[26][25] It was also necessary for a potentialflaminica to be an unwed virgin before her marriage to her husband, who was also required to have been previously unmarried.[27]
Theflamen andflaminica Dialis were required to serve jointly; the couple were not permitted to separate or divorce, and in the event of either's death, the surviving spouse had to step down from their position.[28] They were responsible for performing some rituals together, while others would be performed either separately or with only one as participant.[17] Other restrictions placed upon them even pertained to their marital bed: only the married couple were allowed to sleep in the bed, and neither spouse could sleep elsewhere for more than three consecutive nights.[29] The bed's legs were also required to be covered with "a thin layer of clay", and at the foot was to be a box always filled with freshly-made sacrificial cakes.[30]
The official costume of aflamen Dialis, allegedly dating back to the office's creation, consisted of a hat called analbogalerus, a heavy cloak called alaena, and a laurel wreath.[31] Thelaena was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, worn over thetoga praetexta with a clasp to hold it around his throat.[32] Thealbogalerus was a white leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood, theapex, on its top. Theapex was shaped like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base.[33] This outfit was worn during rituals and sacrifices performed by theflamen, but he was not required or expected to wear it daily. Theflamen also wore senatorial boots, calledcalcei.[31] Theflaminica Dialis was responsible for weaving her husband's cloak by hand, using a ritual blade called asecespikta to cut the fabric.[31] Thelaena could only be made of wool, possibly because of wool's apotropaic qualities and association with purity.[31]
The costume of theflaminicae was also dictated by tradition; they each wore a dyed robe, orvenenato operitur (of an unspecified color), with their hair fashioned in atutulus-style bun and tied in place with a purple ribbon. A square cloak ("rica") was also included, likely draped over the back of the head and across the shoulders, pinned in place with a branch cut from anarbor felix, a tree considered sacred to the gods. It is likely that the type of tree that decorated a particularflaminica's hair was one of specific importance to her respective patron deity, providing some individuality among the women's otherwise identical costumes.
The threeflamines maiores ("major priests") were required to be noble-born patricians, and were accompanied by a corollaryflaminica, a position only allowed to be occupied by the wife of theflamen. They each represented and served a god of theArchaic Triad:
In 42 BC, two years after the assassination ofJulius Caesar, theRoman Senate approved the installation of a fourthflamen maior called theflamen Divi Iulii to oversee his cult, solidifying Caesar as an official divinity (divus) of the Roman state.Mark Antony became the firstflamen for the "Divine Julius" in 40 BC.
Thereafter, during the Imperial period,any deceased Emperor could be madedivus by vote of the Senate with the consent of the current Emperor, and his cult would be overseen by aflamen. Theseflamines were given titles associated with their patron god-Emperor, with surviving examples including theflamenAugustalis, theflamenTiberii Caesaris, and in the case that they oversaw the cults of multiple Emperors, theflamen Divorum Omnium ("priest of all the divine ones"). Their role in relation to living Emperors is uncertain, and officially-sanctioned worship of a living Emperor is not known to have ever occurred. Caesar may have been granted an activeflamen while still alive, but evidence for this is tenuous.
Due to the continued importance of the deities represented by the original threemaiores, it is likely that their offices continued to exist well into the Imperial period as well. At the very least, this was certainly the case for theflamen Dialis, whose last known incumbent wasTerentius Gentianus, circa 211 AD.
The positions of the twelveflamines minores ("lesser priests") could be held by commonplebeians.[34] Some of the deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, with their purposes evidently being rendered mostly obsolete by the end of the Roman Republic. Only ten are known by name with definitive certainty:
There were an additional twoflamines minores by the time of the Republican period, but their names and those of their respective deities are currently not known with any certainty. Based on references and clues in ancient sources, most of which are often contradictory, potential candidates for these final twoflamines may include:
Another less likely candidate cited by some scholars is theflamen Lavinialis, who was potentially dedicated toLavinia, the final wife of the legenary Roman progenitorAeneas. However, if aflamen with such a title did exist, he more likely would have been a municipal priest for the nearby port city ofLavinium, supposedly founded by Aeneas in honor of his wife. Similarly, the previously mentionedflamen Larentialis, orLaurentialis, could have simply been a priest who servedLaurentum, another nearby city significant to the legends of Rome's foundation.[35]
TheflaminesFloralis andPomonalis are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for the ritual roles of thePortunalis in connection with the cult of the godQuirinus, and theVolcanalis in connection with the cult of the goddessMaia on theKalends of May.[36] Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by theCerealis when he officiated sacrifices to the goddessesCeres andTellus.[37]
As theflamines minores mostly seem to be connected to aspects of nature or olderItalic deities, the increased urbanization and diversification of the Roman populace may explain why these deities and their respectiveflamines eventually lost their significance or fell into obscurity.[citation needed]
Dumézil ... attempted to relate philologically the wordsFlamen andBrahman. This has not been generally accepted, but the cultural comparisons ... are certainly suggestive.
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