Fish and chips is a hot dish consisting ofbattered andfried fish, served withchips. Often considered thenational dish of the United Kingdom, fish and chips originated in England in the 19th century.[1][2] Today, the dish is a commontakeaway food in numerous other countries, particularly English-speaking andCommonwealth nations.[3]
Fish and chip shops first appeared in the UK in the 1860s, and by 1910 there were over 25,000 of them across the UK. This increased to over 35,000 by the 1930s, but eventually decreased to approximately 10,000 by 2009.[2] The British government safeguarded the supply of fish and chips during theFirst World War and again in theSecond World War. It was one of the few foods in the UKnot subject to rationing during the wars, which further contributed to its popularity.[2][4]
The British tradition of eating fish battered and fried in oil may have been introduced to the country by theChuts:Spanish and Portuguese Jews, who had lived in the Netherlands before settling in the UK. These immigrants arrived as early as the 16th century, the main immigration to London being during the 1850s.[2][5][6][7] They prepared fried fish in a manner similar topescado frito, which is coated inflour then fried in oil.[7] Fish fried forShabbat for dinner on Friday evenings could be eaten cold the following afternoon forshalosh seudot, palatable this way as liquid vegetable oil was used rather than a hard fat, such as butter.[7][8]Charles Dickens mentions "fried fish warehouses" inOliver Twist (1838),[2] and in 1845Alexis Soyer in his first edition ofA Shilling Cookery for the People, gives a recipe for "fried fish, Jewish fashion", which is dipped in a batter mix of flour and water before frying.[9] However, "fish the Jews' way" in most English cookery books usually refer not to plain fried fish, but toescabeche, fish fried then pickled in vinegar.[10]
Fish and chips, served in a paper wrapper (greaseproof paper inner and ordinary paper outer), as a takeaway
The location of the firstfish and chip shop is unclear. The earliest known shops were opened in London during the 1860s by Eastern European Jewish immigrant Joseph Malin,[11] and by John Lees inMossley, Lancashire.[12][13] Fried fish and chips had existed separately for at least 50 years prior to this, so the possibility that they had been combined at an earlier time cannot be ruled out.[14] Fish and chips became a stock meal among the working class in England as a consequence of the rapid development oftrawl fishing in theNorth Sea,[15] and the development of railways which connected the ports to major industrial cities during the second half of the 19th century, so that fresh fish could be rapidly transported to the cities.[16]
Deep-fried chips (slices or pieces of potato) as a dish may have first appeared in England in about the same period: theOxford English Dictionary notes as its earliest usage of "chips" in this sense the mention in Charles Dickens'A Tale of Two Cities (1859): "husky chips of potato, fried with some reluctant drops of oil".[17][18][19]
The modern fish-and-chip shop ("chippy" in modern British slang) originated in the UK, although outlets selling fried food occurred commonly throughout Europe.[20][21] Early fish-and-chip shops had only very basic facilities. Usually these consisted principally of a large cauldron of cooking fat, heated by a coal fire. The fish-and-chip shop later evolved into a fairly standard format, with the food served, in paper wrappings, to queuing customers, over a counter in front of the fryers. According to Professor John Walton, author ofFish and Chips and the British Working Class, the British government made safeguarding supplies of fish and chips during theFirst World War a priority: "The cabinet knew it was vital to keep families on the home front in good heart, unlike the German regime that failed to keep its people well fed".[2]
Harry Ramsden's in Brighton, one of its 35 outlets in the UK and Ireland
During theSecond World War, fish and chips—a staple of the working class—remained one of the few foods in the United Kingdomnot subject to rationing.[23] Prime MinisterWinston Churchill referred to the combination of fish and chips as "the good companions".[2]
British fish and chips were originally served in a wrapping of old newspapers but this practice has now largely ceased, with plain paper, cardboard, or plastic being used instead. In the UK, the Fish Labelling Regulations 2003,[24] and in the Republic of Ireland the European Communities (Labelling of Fishery and Aquaculture Products) Regulations 2003,[25] respectively enact directive 2065/2001/EC, and generally mean that "fish" must be sold with the particular commercial name or species named; so, for example, "cod and chips" now appears on menus rather than the more vague "fish and chips". In the UK theFood Standards Agency guidance excludescaterers from this;[26] but several local Trading Standards authorities and others do say it cannot be sold merely as "fish and chips".[27][28][29]
Fish and chips on the seafront atHunstanton, Norfolk. In the UK, fish and chips are particularly associated withseaside resorts.[4]The Rock & Sole Plaice fish and chip shop in London, opened in 1871
A prominent meal in British culture, fish and chips became popular in wider circles in London and South East England in the middle of the 19th century:Charles Dickens mentions a "fried fish warehouse" inOliver Twist, first published in 1838, while in the north of England a trade in deep-fried chipped potatoes developed.[30] It remains unclear exactly when and where these two trades combined to become the modernfish and chip shop industry. A Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, opened the first recorded combined fish-and-chip shop inBow, East London, circa 1860; a Mr Lees pioneered the concept in the North of England, inMossley, in 1863.[30][31] A century later, theNational Federation of Fish Friers, which made Malin's its first member, presented a plaque to Malin's as being the world's first fish and chip shop.[32] Ablue plaque is located at the other main contender for the first fish and chip shop, the present site ofOldham's Tommyfield Market.[33] Located inCovent Garden, The Rock & Sole Plaice, dating from 1871, is London's oldest fish and chip shop still in operation.[30]
The concept of a sit-down fish restaurant—as opposed to takeaway—was introduced by Samuel Isaacs, an entrepreneur fromWhitechapel, East London who ran a thriving wholesale and retail fish business.[34] Dubbed the 'Fish Restaurant King', Isaacs' first restaurant opened inLambeth, South London in 1896 serving fish and chips, bread and butter, and tea for nine pence.[35] It became instantly popular and led to achain which comprised 22 restaurants.[34][36] Isaacs' trademark was the phrase "This is thePlaice", combined with a picture of the punned-upon fish in question, which appeared in all of his restaurants.[34] Isaacs' restaurants were carpeted, had table service, tablecloths, flowers, china and cutlery, and made the trappings of upmarket dining affordable to the working classes. They were located inthe Strand and other London locations, as well as Brighton,Ramsgate,Margate and other seaside resorts in southern England.[34] Menus were expanded in the early 20th century to include meat dishes and other variations. A glimpse of the old Brighton restaurant at No.1 Marine Parade can be seen in the background ofNorman Wisdom's 1955 filmOne Good Turn just as Pitkin runs onto the seafront; this is now the site of aHarry Ramsden's fish and chips restaurant.
From their first appearance on the BritishHigh Street in the early 1860s, fish and chip shops spread rapidly in order to satisfy the needs of the growing industrial population.[37] By 1910, there were over 25,000 fish and chip shops across the UK, a figure that grew to over 35,000 shops by the 1930s.[2] Since then the trend has reversed, and in 2009 there were approximately 10,000 shops.[2]
Dundee City Council claims that chips were first sold by a Belgian immigrant, Edward De Gernier, in the city's Greenmarket in the 1870s.[38] InEdinburgh and the surrounding area, a combination of Gold Starbrown sauce and water or malt vinegar, known as "sauce", or more specifically as "chippy sauce", has great popularity;[39]salt and vinegar is preferred elsewhere in Scotland.[40][41][42][43]
The annual National Fish & Chips Awards were set up in the UK in 1988.[44] The 30th Annual Fish & Chips Awards ceremony was attended by Norwegian ambassador to the UK Mona Juul.[45]
Fish and chips at the Australian Hotel, St George, Queensland
The first recorded owner of an Australian fish and chip shop is Greek migrant Athanasias Comino, who opened his shop in 1879 on Sydney's Oxford Street, though Comino's shop was inspired by an unknown Welshman's pre-existing fish and chip shop.[46] In Australia today, there are an estimated 4000 fish and chip shops, as well as fish and chips being an essential menu offering in manyAustralian pubs and restaurants.[46]
Fish and chips is a widely popular dish in Canada, sometimes usinghaddock or local lake-caught fish likeperch orwalleye. Most shops also sellpoutine and other fried items. In the province ofNewfoundland & Labrador, fish and chips made with cod are a staple food and the most common takeout meal.
In Ireland, the first fish and chips were sold by an Italian immigrant, Giuseppe Cervi, who mistakenly stepped off a North America-bound ship at Queenstown (nowCobh) inCounty Cork in the 1880s and walked all the way toDublin.[47] He started by selling fish and chips outside Dublin pubs from a handcart. He then found a permanent spot in Great Brunswick Street (nowPearse Street). His wife Palma would ask customers "Uno di questa, uno di quella?" This phrase (meaning "one of this, one of that") entered thevernacular in Dublin as "one and one", which is still a way of referring to fish and chips in the city.[21]
Fish and chips is the most popular takeaway food in New Zealand. Food historians have not been able to pinpoint exactly when the meal became an established part of New Zealand cuisine, but all recognise that the first fish and chips shops were introduced by British settlers beforeWorld War I.[48] During the 20th century, nearly every small town and suburb in New Zealand had at least one fish-and-chip shop. As in Britain, Friday night has been the traditional night to eat fish.[48]
Traditionally, fish and chips were served in wrappings of greaseproof paper and then newspaper as insulation. With the decline of the newspaper industry, this has become less common although plain, unprinted paper is still popular.
In the United States, the dish is most commonly sold asfish and chips, except inUpstate New York andWisconsin and other parts of theNortheast andUpper Midwest, where this dish would be called afish fry.[50] While in the United Stateschips refers topotato chips ("crisps" in British English), the dish retains its native name.[51] In theSouthern United States, a common form of cuisine is friedcatfish with French fries, accompanied bycoleslaw, pickles, raw onion slices and lemon slices.
In Britain and Ireland,cod andhaddock appear most commonly as the fish used for fish and chips,[53] but vendors also sell many other kinds of fish, especially otherwhite fish, such aspollock,hake orcoley,plaice,skate,ray, and huss orrock salmon (a term covering several species ofdogfish and similar fish). In traditional fish and chip shops several varieties of fish are offered by name ("haddock and chips"), but in some restaurants and stalls "fish and chips", unspecified, is offered; it is increasingly likely to be the much cheaperbasa.[54] In Northern Ireland, cod, plaice orwhiting appear most commonly in 'fish suppers'—'supper' being Scottish and Northern Irish terminology for a food item accompanied by chips.[55] Suppliers inDevon andCornwall often offer pollock and coley as cheap alternatives to haddock.[56]
In Australia, reef cod androck cod (a variety different from that used in the United Kingdom),barramundi orflathead (more expensive options),flake (a type ofshark meat),King George whiting (little more expensive than other fish, but cheaper than barramundi or flathead) orsnapper (cheaper options), are commonly used. From the early 21st century, farmedbasa imported from Vietnam andhoki have become common in Australian fish and chip shops. Other types of fish are also used based on regional availability.
In New Zealand,snapper orgurnard was originally the preferred species for battered fillets in the North Island. As catches of this fish declined, it was replaced by hoki, shark (particularlyrig) – marketed as lemon fish – andtarakihi.Bluefin gurnard andblue cod predominate in South Island fish and chips.[48]
There is a longstanding debate among vendors in the UK on whether beef dripping or vegetable oil is the best way to fry fish and chips.[60] The traditional method of dripping or lard are used in some living industrial history museums, such as theBlack Country andBeamish Living Museums in England.[62][63]
The fish part of the dish is filleted, and no bones should be found in the fish.[64]
In Britain and Ireland, fish and chip shops traditionally use a simple water and flourbatter, adding a littlesodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and a little vinegar to create lightness, as they react to create bubbles in the batter. Other recipes may use beer or milk batter, where these liquids are often substitutes for water. Thecarbon dioxide in the beer lends a lighter texture to the batter. Beer also results in an orange-brown colour. A simple beer batter might consist of a 2:3 ratio of flour to beer by volume. The type of beer alters the taste of the batter; some preferlager[65][66] whereas others usestout orbitter.
British chips are usually considerably thicker than American-style French fries.[51] Some US restaurants and some people in their home cooking may use a thick type of chip, similar to the British variant, sometimes referred to assteak fries.
Fish and chips served with a lemon wedge,coleslaw and tartar sauce in an iron bowl
In chip shops in most parts of Britain and Ireland,salt andvinegar are traditionally sprinkled over fish and chips at the time it is served.[53] Suppliers usemalt vinegar, onion vinegar (used for pickling onions), or the cheapernon-brewed condiment. In a few places, notably Edinburgh, 'sauce' (as in 'salt and sauce') is more traditional than vinegar—with 'sauce' meaning a brown sauce.[40][41][42][43] In England, a portion ofmushy peas is a popular side dish,[67] as are a range of pickles that typically includegherkins,onions andeggs.[68] In table-service restaurants andpubs, the dish is usually served with a slice of lemon for squeezing over the fish and without any sauces orcondiments, with salt, vinegar and sauces available at the customer's leisure.[69]Ketchup is also a popular addition (a 2020YouGov poll in the UK saw ketchup, curry sauce and mushy peas as the top three toppings after salt and vinegar).[70]
In Ireland, Wales and England, many takeaways serve warm side portions of sauces such ascurry sauce orgravy, if requested and normally for a small extra fee (curry sauce topped the poll in Wales with one in three using it as a topping).[70] The sauces are usually poured over the chips. In the Midlands especially, chips with mushy peas orbaked beans are known as a "pea mix" or a "bean mix". Other fried products include 'scraps' (also known as 'bits' in Southern England and "scrumps" in South Wales), originally a by-product of fish frying. Still popular in Northern England, they were given as treats to the children of customers. Portions prepared and sold today consist of loose blobs of batter, deep-fried to a crunchy golden crisp in the cooking fat. The potato scallop or potato cake consists of slices of potato dipped in fish batter and deep-fried until golden brown. These are often accompanied for dipping by the warm sauces listed above.[71]
In Sheffield, Yorkshire fishcakes are made by sandwiching a piece of fish between two slices of potato and deep frying it in batter. This is commonly sold in a bread bun and known as a Fishcake Butty.[72][73]
An average serving of fish and chips consisting of 170 grams (6 oz) of fried fish with 280 grams (10 oz) of fried chips has approximately 1,000 kcal (4,200 kJ) calories and contains approximately 52 grams (1+4⁄5 oz) of fat.[74] The use of tartar sauce as a condiment adds more calories and fat to the dish.
A mobile fish and chip vendorAEC Routemaster (classic London double-decker bus) converted into a mobile "chip van". Conventional vans are often used to sell fish and chips.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa, fish and chips are usually sold by independent restaurants andtake-aways known asfish and chip shops. Outlets range from small affairs to chain restaurants. Locally owned seafood restaurants are also popular in many places, as are mobile "chip vans".[75] In Canada, the outlets may be referred to as "chip wagons".
In Ireland, the majority of traditional vendors are migrants or the descendants of migrants from southern Italy. A trade organisation exists to represent this tradition.[76] In New Zealand and Australia, fish-and-chip vendors are a popular business and source of income among the Asian community, particularly Chinese migrants.[77] In Indonesia, fish and chips are commonly found in western and seafood restaurants in large cities, as well as chain restaurants like The Manhattan Fish Market, Fish & Chips, etc.[78]
Many British establishments have humorous orpun-based names, such as, "A Salt and Battery", "The Codfather", "The Frying Scotsman", "Oh My Cod", "Frying Nemo", "Rock and Sole" and "Jack the Chipper".[79][80] The numerous competitions and awards for "best fish-and-chip shop"[81] testify to the recognised status of this type of outlet inpopular culture.[82]
Establishment abroad catering to holiday-makers (sign inLanzarote, Spain)
Fish and chips is a popular lunch meal eaten by families travelling to seaside resorts for day trips who do not bring their ownpicnic meals.
Fish-and-chip outlets sell roughly 25% of all thewhite fish consumed in the United Kingdom, and 10% of allpotatoes.[83]
Fish-and-chip shops traditionally wrapped their product in newspaper, or with an inner layer of white paper (for hygiene) and an outer layer of newspaper or blanknewsprint (for insulation and to absorb grease), though the use of newspaper for wrapping has almost ceased on grounds of hygiene. Nowadays[update], establishments usually use food-quality wrapping paper, or recyclable cardboard boxes.
The BritishNational Federation of Fish Friers was founded in 1913. It promotes fish and chips and offers training courses. It has about 8,500 members from around the UK.[84]
A previous world record for the "largest serving of fish and chips" was held by Gadaleto's Seafood Market in New Paltz, New York.[85][86] This 2004 record was broken byYorkshirepub Wensleydale Heifer in July 2011.[87] An attempt to break this record was made byDoncaster fish and chip shop Scawsby Fisheries in August 2012, which served 15 kg (33 lb) of battered cod alongside 29 kg (64 lb) of chips.[88] Current record is held by Resorts World Birmingham which served a fish and chips weighing 54.99 kg (121 lb 4 oz) from a 27.83-kilogram (61 lb 6 oz) raw filet of halibut on 9 February 2018.[89]
The long-standingRoman Catholic tradition ofnot eating meat on Fridays, especially duringLent, and of substituting fish for meat on that day continues to influence habits even in predominantly Protestant, semi-secular and secular societies. Friday night remains a traditional occasion for eating fish and chips; manycafeterias and similar establishments, while varying their menus on other days of the week, habitually offer fish and chips every Friday.[90]
In 1967, inspired by the use of salt and vinegar as condiments for fish and chips in the UK, theSmiths Potato Crisps Company created Salt & Vinegar flavourcrisps.[91][92]
In Australia and New Zealand, the words "fish and chips" are often used as ashibboleth to highlight the difference in each country's short-i vowel sound/ɪ/. Australian English has a higher forward sound[i], close to theee insee (but shorter), while New Zealand English has a lower backward sound[ɘ] akin to thea inRosa's (but not inRosa, which is typically lower[ɐ]). Thus, New Zealanders hear Australians say "feesh and cheeps," while Australians hear New Zealanders say "fush and chups."[93]
In the UK, waste oil from fish and chip shops has become a useful source ofbiodiesel.[94] The German biodiesel company Petrotec has outlined plans to produce biodiesel in the UK using waste oil from the British fish-and-chip industry.[94]
^abc"Having a Whaler of a time".Northern Echo. Retrieved22 June 2022.Fish 'n' chips (the "sixpenny supper") sustained national morale through two world wars, helped turn fishing ports into holiday resorts and made Friday night suppers the culinary highlight of the week for generations. George Orwell reckoned they were essential for keeping the masses happy – and he was right. More than 150 years after Joseph Malin opened his first shop, fish and chips are a British institution.
^Rayner, Jay (3 November 2005)."Enduring Love".The Guardian. London. Retrieved19 January 2003.In 1860 a Jewish immigrant from Eastern Europe called Joseph Malin opened the first business in London's East End selling fried fish alongside chipped potatoes which, until then, had been found only in the Irish potato shops.
^ab"Chips, fries or crisps? The internet is divided over potato snack names".The Independent. Retrieved23 March 2019.In line with British terminology, the chunky, thick, fried and floury variety should be called chips. Meanwhile, the slimmer and crispier options - a staple in fast food restaurants and American diners - are fries.
Priestland, Gerald (1972).Frying tonight: the saga of fish & chips. London: Gentry Books.ISBN0-85614-014-7.
Walton, John K. (1989). "Fish and Chips and the British Working Class, 1870–1930".Journal of Social History.23 (2):243–266.doi:10.1353/jsh/23.2.243.JSTOR3787879.
Walton, John K. (1994).Fish and Chips, and the British Working Class, 1870–1940 (1 ed.). Leicester: Leicester University Press.ISBN0-567-21232-7.
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