In thehistory of Christianity, thefirst seven ecumenical councils are as follows: theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325, theFirst Council of Constantinople in 381, theCouncil of Ephesus in 431, theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451, theSecond Council of Constantinople in 553, theThird Council of Constantinople from 680 to 681 and finally, theSecond Council of Nicaea in 787. All of the seven councils were convened in what is now the country ofTurkey.
These seven events represented an attempt by Church leaders to reach anorthodox consensus, restore peace[1] and develop a unifiedChristendom.[2] AmongEastern Christians theEastern Orthodox,Oriental Orthodox, andChurch of the East (Assyrian) churches and amongWestern Christians theRoman Catholic,Anglican,Utrecht andPolish NationalOld Catholic, and some ScandinavianLutheran churches all trace the legitimacy of their clergy byapostolic succession back to this period and beyond, to the earlier period referred to as theEarly Church.
This era begins with the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325, convened by the emperorConstantine I following his victory overLicinius and consolidation of his reign over the Roman Empire. Nicaea I enunciated theNicene Creed that in itsoriginal form and asmodified by the First Council of Constantinople of 381 was seen by all later councils as the touchstone oforthodoxy on the doctrine of theTrinity.
The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches accept all seven of these councils as legitimateecumenical councils. TheNon-Chalcedonian Oriental Orthodox Churches accept only the first three, while the Non-Ephesian Church of the East accepts only the first two. There is also one additional council, the so-calledQuinisext Council of Trullo held in AD 692 between the sixth and seventh ecumenical councils, which issued organizational, liturgical andcanonical rules but did not discuss theology. Only within Eastern Orthodoxy is its authority commonly considered ecumenical; however, the Orthodox do not number it among the seven general councils, but rather count it as a continuation of the fifth and sixth. The Roman Catholic Church does not accept the Quinisext Council,[3][4] but both theRoman magisterium as well as a minority of Eastern Orthodox hierarchs and theological writers consider there to have been further ecumenical councils after the first seven (see theFourth Council of Constantinople,Fifth Council of Constantinople, and fourteen additionalpost-schismecumenical councils canonical for Catholics).
These seven ecumenical councils are:
| Council | Date | Convoked by | President | Attendance (approx.) | Main topics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First Council of Nicaea | 20 May – 19 June 325 | Emperor Constantine I | Hosius of Corduba (andEmperor Constantine) | 318 | Arianism, the nature of Christ, celebration of Passover (Easter),ordination of eunuchs, prohibition of kneeling on Sundays and from Easter to Pentecost, validity ofbaptism by heretics, lapsed Christians, sundry other matters. |
| First Council of Constantinople | May–July 381 | EmperorTheodosius I | Timothy of Alexandria,Meletius of Antioch,Gregory Nazianzus, andNectarius of Constantinople | 150 | Arianism,Apollinarism,Sabellianism,Holy Spirit, successor to Meletius |
| Council of Ephesus | 22 June – 31 July 431 | EmperorTheodosius II | Cyril of Alexandria,Acacius of Melitene,Theodotus of Ancyra[5] | 200–250 | Nestorianism,Theotokos,Pelagianism |
| Council of Chalcedon | 8 October – 1 November 451 | EmperorMarcian | Papal Legates ofPope Leo I: Paschasinus of Lilybaeum, Lucentius of Asculanum, Julian of Cos, and the presbyter Boniface. (Formal presidency)[6] | 520 | The judgments issued at theSecond Council of Ephesus in 449, the alleged offences of Bishop Dioscorus of Alexandria, the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Christ, many disputes involving particular bishops and sees. |
| Second Council of Constantinople | 5 May – 2 June 553 | EmperorJustinian I | Eutychius of Constantinople | 152 | Nestorianism,Monophysitism,Origenism |
| Third Council of Constantinople | 7 November 680 – 16 September 681 | EmperorConstantine IV | Patriarch George I of Constantinople | 300 | Monothelitism, the human and divine wills of Jesus |
| Second Council of Nicaea | 24 September – 23 October 787 | Constantine VI and EmpressIrene (asregent) | Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople,legates ofPope Adrian I | 350 | Iconoclasm |
Emperor Constantine convened this council to settle a controversial issue, the relation betweenJesus Christ andGod the Father. The Emperor wanted to establish universal agreement on it. Representatives came from across the Empire, subsidized by the Emperor. Previous to this council, the bishops would hold local councils, such as theCouncil of Jerusalem, but there had been no universal, or ecumenical, council.
The council drew up a creed, theoriginal Nicene Creed, which received nearly unanimous support. The council's description of "God's only-begotten Son",Jesus Christ, as of thesame substance withGod the Father became a touchstone of ChristianTrinitarianism. The council also addressed the issue of dating Easter (seeQuartodecimanism andEaster controversy), recognised the right of theSee of Alexandria to jurisdiction outside of its own province (by analogy with the jurisdiction exercised by Rome) and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and the other provinces[7] and approved the custom by whichJerusalem was honoured, but without the metropolitan dignity.[8]
The Council was opposed by theArians, and Constantine tried to reconcileArius, after whom Arianism is named, with the Church. Even when Arius died in 336, one year before the death of Constantine, the controversy continued, with various separate groups espousing Arian sympathies in one way or another.[9] In 359, a double council of Eastern and Western bishops affirmed a formula stating that the Father and the Son were similar in accord with the scriptures, the crowning victory for Arianism.[9] The opponents of Arianism rallied, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381 marked the final victory of Nicene orthodoxy within the Empire, though Arianism had by then spread to the Germanic tribes, among whom it gradually disappeared after the conversion of theFranks to Christianity in 496.[9]
In 331,Constantine I commissionedEusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for theChurch of Constantinople.Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles forConstans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation forcanon lists, and thatCodex Vaticanus andCodex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with thePeshitta andCodex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.[10]
The council approved the current form of theNicene Creed used in mostOriental Orthodox churches. TheEastern Orthodox Church uses the council's text but with the verbs expressing belief in the singular: Πιστεύω (I believe) instead of Πιστεύομεν (We believe). TheCatholic Church'sLatin Church andits liturgies also use the singular and, except inGreek,[11] adds two phrases,Deum de Deo (God from God) andFilioque (and the Son). The form used by theArmenian Apostolic Church, which is part ofOriental Orthodoxy, has many more additions.[12] This fuller creed may have existed before the Council and probably originated from the baptismal creed of Constantinople.[13]
The council also condemnedApollinarism,[14] the teaching that there was no human mind or soul in Christ.[15] It also granted Constantinople honorary precedence over all churches save Rome.[14]
The council did not include Western bishops or Roman legates, but it was later accepted as ecumenical in the West.[14]
Theodosius II called the council to settle theChristological controversy surroundingNestorianism. Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, declared the use of the termTheotokos (Greek: Ἡ Θεοτόκος, "God-Bearer") to be insufficient, preferring to useChristokos.[16] This term had been in use by the early church prior to the outbreak of this controversy.[16] Nestorius affirmed that Christ is in two distinct, separate natures (hypostases) that persist after the union, in contrast toCyril of Alexandria, who insisted on the unity of the two natures into one.[5]
The council deposed Nestorius, repudiatedNestorianism, and proclaimed the VirginMary as theTheotokos.
After quoting theNicene Creed in its original form, as at the First Council of Nicaea, without the alterations and additions made at the First Council of Constantinople, it declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with theHoly Ghost in Nicæa."[17]
Shortly afterCyril's death, in November 448, a synod at Constantinople condemned Eutyches,[18] an archimandrite (abbot) of a significant monastery nearConstantinople,[19] who taught that Christ was notconsubstantial with humanity as He had one divine nature that "consumed his humanity as the ocean consumes a drop of vinegar."[20]
In 449, Theodosius II summoned a council at Ephesus, where Eutyches was exonerated and returned to his monastery.[18] This council was later overturned by the Council of Chalcedon and labeled "Latrocinium" (i.e., "Robber Council").[18]
The council repudiated theEutychian doctrine ofmonophysitism, described and delineated the "Hypostatic Union" andtwo natures of Christ, human and divine; adopted theChalcedonian Definition. For those who accept it (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and most Protestants), it is the Fourth Ecumenical Council (calling theSecond Council of Ephesus, which was rejected by this council, the "Robber Synod" or "Robber Council").
TheMiaphysite faction held another council at Ephesus, theThird Council of Ephesus, in which it condemned theCouncil of Chalcedon including theTome of Leo, in addition toEutychianism, and reaffirmed the12 Anathemas of Saint Cyril. This was signed by 500-700 bishops.[21][22]
This council condemned certain writings and authors which defended the Christology of Nestorius. This move was instigated by Emperor Justinian in an effort to conciliate theMiaphysite Christians, which made up the majority of the east. It was opposed in the West, and the Popes' acceptance of the council caused a major schism.[23]
Prior to the Second Council of Constantinople was a prolonged controversy over the treatment of three subjects, all considered sympathetic to Nestorianism, the heresy that there are two separate persons in the Incarnation of Christ.[24] Emperor Justinian condemned the Three Chapters, hoping to appeal tomiaphysite Christians with his anti-Nestorian zeal.[25] Monophysites believe that in the Incarnate Christ there is only one nature (i.e. the divine) not two[20] while miaphysites believe that the two natures of Christ are united as one and are distinct in thought only.
Some eastern patriarchs supported the Emperor, but in the West his interference was resented, and Pope Vigilius resisted his edict on the grounds that it opposed the Chalcedonian decrees.[25] Justinian's policy was in fact an attack on Antiochene theology and the decisions of Chalcedon.[25] The pope assented and condemned the Three Chapters, but protests in the West caused him to retract his condemnation.[25] The emperor called the Second Council of Constantinople to resolve the controversy.[25]
The council, attended mostly by Eastern bishops, condemned the Three Chapters and, indirectly, the Pope Vigilius.[25] It also affirmed Constantinople's intention to remain in communion with Rome.[25]
Vigilius declared his submission to the council, as did his successor,Pope Pelagius I.[25] The council was not immediately recognized as ecumenical in the West, and Milan and Aquileia even broke off communion with Rome over this issue.[23] The schism was not repaired until the late 6th century for Milan and the late 7th century for Aquileia.[23]
Ultimately, the council failed to reconcile theOriental Orthodox Churches, as it required acceptance of a two-nature formula that contradicted the decisions of theCouncil of Ephesus. This included the deposition ofDioscorus andSeverus, the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, respectively, as well as the veneration of figures still associated with Nestorianism, such asIbas of Edessa andTheodore of Mopsuestia.[25][5]
TheThird Council of Constantinople (680–681) mainly repudiatedmonothelitism, a doctrine that had gained widespread support since its formulation in 638. The Council condemned bothmonoenergism andmonothelitism as heretical, affirming that Christ possesses two energies and two wills — divine and human.[26]
Quinisext Council (= Fifth-Sixth Council) or Council inTrullo (692) has not been accepted by the Roman Catholic Church. Since it was mostly an administrative council for raising some local canons to ecumenical status, establishing principles of clerical discipline, addressing theBiblical canon, without determining matters of doctrine, theEastern Orthodox Church does not consider it to be a full-fledged council in its own right, viewing it instead as an extension of the fifth and sixth councils. It gave ecclesiastical sanction to thePentarchy as the government of thestate church of the Roman Empire.[27]
Second Council of Nicaea (787). In 753, Emperor Constantine V convened theSynod of Hieria, which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented him and that images of Mary and the saints were idols.[28] The Second Council of Nicaea restored the veneration oficons and ended the firsticonoclasm.[citation needed]
In the 9th century, EmperorMichael III deposedPatriarch Ignatius of Constantinople andPhotius was appointed in his place.Pope Nicholas I declared the deposition of Ignatius invalid. After Michael was murdered, Ignatius was reinstated as patriarch without challenge and in 869–870 acouncil in Constantinople, considered ecumenical in the West,anathematized Photius. With Ignatius' death in 877, Photius became patriarch, and in 879–880another council in Constantinople, which many Easterners consider ecumenical, annulled the decision of the previous council.[29]
They renounced their false opinions and died in peace with the Church." (Russian:"отказались от своих ложных мнений и скончались в мире с Церковью.)
...Tarasius ... skilfully put forward the project of an Ecumenical Council which should restore peace and unity to the Christian world. The Empress [...] summoned the prelates of Christendom to Constantinople for the spring of 786. ... Finally the Council was convoked at Nicaea in Bithynia; it was opened in the presence of the papal legates on 24 September 787. This was the seventh Ecumenical Council.
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