First Turkic Khaganate | |||||||||||||
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| 552–603 | |||||||||||||
.png)  FIRST TURKIC KHAGANATE The First Turkic Khaganate at its greatest extent, in 576. | |||||||||||||
| Status | Khaganate (Nomadic empire) | ||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||||||
| Religion | Tengrism,Buddhism | ||||||||||||
| Demonyms | Türük Türk | ||||||||||||
| Qaghan | |||||||||||||
• 552 | Bumin Qaghan (first) | ||||||||||||
• 599–603 | Tardu (last) | ||||||||||||
| Yabgu | |||||||||||||
• 552–575 | Istämi (first) | ||||||||||||
• 575–599 | Tardu (last) | ||||||||||||
| Historical era | Post-classical | ||||||||||||
• Bumin Qaghan revolts againstRouran Khaganate | 542 | ||||||||||||
• Established | 552 | ||||||||||||
| 581 | |||||||||||||
• Brief re-unification | 603 | ||||||||||||
• Division ofWestern andEastern Turkic Khaganates | 603 | ||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||
| 557[8][9][10] | 6,000,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||
• 6th century[11] | 3 million | ||||||||||||
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TheFirst Turkic Khaganate, also referred to as theFirst Turkic Empire,[12] theTurkic Khaganate or theGöktürk Khaganate, was aTurkic khaganate established by theAshina clan of theGöktürks in medievalInner Asia under the leadership ofBumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his brotherIstämi. The First Turkic Khaganate succeeded theRouran Khaganate as thehegemonic power of theMongolian Plateau and rapidly expanded their territories inCentral Asia. Thekhaganate became the first Central Asian transcontinental empire fromManchuria to theBlack Sea.[4]: 49 [13]
Although the Göktürks spoke aSiberian Turkic language, the direct predecessor to theOrkhon Turkic of theSecond Turkic Khaganate, the First Khaganate's early official texts and coins were written inSogdian.[5][6] It was the first Turkic state to use the nameTürk politically.[14] TheOld Turkic script was invented in the first half of the sixth century.[15][16]
The Khaganate collapsed in 603, after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into theEastern Turkic Khaganate andWestern Turkic Khaganate.Tang China conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 andthe Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. The Second Turkic Khaganate emerged in 682 and lasted until 744, when it was overthrown by theUyghur Khaganate.
The origins of the Turkic Khaganate trace back to 546, whenBumin Qaghan made a preemptive strike against theUyghur andTiele groups planning a revolt against their overlords, theRouran Khaganate. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, thus marrying into the royal family. However, the Rourankhagan,Yujiulü Anagui, sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" As Anagui's "blacksmith slave" (Chinese:鍛奴;pinyin:duànnú) comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles, some claim that theGöktürks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite,[17][18][19][20] and that "blacksmith slavery" may have indicated a form ofvassalage within Rouran society.[21] According toDenis Sinor, this reference indicates that the Türks specialized in metallurgy, although it is unclear if they were miners or, indeed, blacksmiths.[22][23] Whatever the case, that the Turks were "slaves" need not be taken literally, but probably represented a form of vassalage, or unequal alliance.[24]
A disappointed Bumin allied with theWestern Wei against the Rouran, their common enemy, by marryingPrincess Changle. In 552, Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north ofHuaihuang (modernZhangjiakou,Hebei).[27][28]
This effectively ended the Rouran, which had for the previous century and a half been the dominant power on the eastern steppe.[29]
Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new Khaganate atÖtüken, but died only months later. He was succeeded by his son Qara who also died shortly. The newly established empire was then divided among Bumin's other son,Muqan Qaghan and his brotherIstämi.[30]
Muqan ruled over the eastern part of the empire centered onMongolia and defeated theHephthalite Empire.[33][34] Bumin's brotherIstämi (d. 576) bore the title "Yabghu of the West". This western branch of the Ashina clan wasde facto independent while the eastern khagan was formally recognized as the senior. In 557, Istämi forged an alliance withKhosrow I of theSassanid Empire ofIran to defeat and destroy the Hephthalites, who were allies of the Rouran. This resulted in the establishment of a common border between the two empires.[35][36] This war tightened the Ashina clan's grip on theSilk Road. The alliance with Northern China was further reinforced in 568 through the marriage of the Turkic princessAshina, daughter of Muqan Qaghan, withEmperor Wu of theXianbei-led ChineseNorthern Zhou dynasty.
The appearance of thePannonian Avars in the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Göktürks, although the specifics are a matter of debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology.Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran,[37] while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran-Avar identification is "repeated from article to article, from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it".[38]
Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Göktürks into Europe.[39] In 576 the Göktürks crossed theKerch Strait into theCrimea. Five years later they laid siege toChersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590.[40] As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of theAmu Darya, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sasanian Empire. In 589, the Sasanian Empire attacked anddefeated the Türks.[41] Much ofBactria (includingBalkh) remained a dependency of theAshina until the end of the century.[40]
The Göktürks played a major role in theByzantine Empire's relationship with the PersianSasanian Empire.[43] First contact with the Byzantines is believed to have happened in 563 and relates to an incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (thePannonian Avars) ran away during their war with theHephthalites.[43][44]
The second contact occurred when Maniah, aSogdian diplomat, convincedIstämi (also known as Silziboulos in Greek writings[45]) of the Göktürks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capitalConstantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperorJustin II and where they discussed an alliance. Justin II seems to have been more interested in securing an ally to the rear of the Sasanians with whom they had been in almost permanent conflict rather than the importation of silk. In 569 an embassy led byZemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.[43][46][47]
Another set of embassies occurred in 575–576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility byTurxanthos due to alleged treachery.[44] They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istämi to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.[48] The subsequent hostility shown by the new rulerTardu[48][49] would be matched in Byzantine writings.[50] With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly did not trust the Turks as partners).[43]
![Göktürk petroglyphs from Mongolia (6th to 8th century).[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTyurki.jpg)
![Turkic horsemen with long hair on the tomb of a Sogdian trader, the Miho funerary couch. Circa 570 CE. Northern Dynasties, China.[52][26]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTurkic_horsemen_with_unidentifiable_ambassadors_on_top.jpg)
![Reception of a noble Turk (center, with his retinue to the left) in the residence of the Sogdian trader An Jia (right half). 579 CE, Tomb of An Jia, Xi’an, China.[53]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAn_Jia_Entertainment_Scene._Xi%25E2%2580%2599an%2c_579_CE._Shaanxi_Provincial_Institute_of_Archaeology%2c_Xi%25E2%2580%2599an.jpg)
When the fourth ruler of the khaganate,Taspar Qaghan, died in 581, the realm split in two over his succession.[28] He had willed the title of khagan to Muqan's sonApa Qaghan, but the high council appointedIshbara Qaghan instead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long, four rivals claimed the title. They were successfully played off against each other by theSui andTang dynasties.[citation needed]
Istämi's son,Tardu the leader of the western Turks, made a bid for total independence.[28] He seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power, Ötüken.[citation needed]
In order to support his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate, acknowledged the suzerainty ofEmperor Yang of Sui in order to seek their protection.[28] Tardu attackedChang'an, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in thecivil war. In retaliation, Suidiplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu'sTiele vassals, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs andXueyantuo.[citation needed]
Early Turkic Khaganates
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The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Ötüken, remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Göktürk.Shibi Khan (609–619) andIllig Qaghan (620–630) attacked theCentral Plain at its weakest moment during thetransition between the Sui and Tang. Shibi Khan's surprise attack againstYanmen Commandery during an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost capturedEmperor Yang, but hisethnic Han wife Princess Yicheng—who had been well treated byEmpress Xiao during an earlier visit—sent a warning ahead, allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present-dayDaixian inShanxi.[58] This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11, 615,[59][60] but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion.[58]
In 626, Illig Qaghan took advantage of theXuanwu Gate Incident and drove on to Chang'an. On September 23, 626,[59] Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of theWei River north of Bian Bridge (in present-dayXianyang,Shaanxi). On September 25, 626,[59]Emperor Taizong of Tang met Illig Qaghan on the border bridge, Taizong accused Illig Qaghan of crossing the border, Illig saw that Taizong was imposing and mistakenly thought that the reinforcements from the Tang dynasty had arrived, and was asked to duel. Illig was afraid and agreed to retreat in an alliance, which is called the Weishui Alliance (渭水之盟) or the Alliance of Bian Qiao (便橋會盟 / 便桥会盟).[61] On the third day after the meeting, the Illig Qaghan sent 3,000 horses and 10,000 sheep to the border as compensation to the Tang dynasty, which Emperor Taizong did not accept, believing that this was too little.[62] All in all, 67 incursions intoChina proper were recorded.[40]
Before mid-October 627, heavy snows on theMongolian–Manchurian grassland covered the ground to a depth of several feet, preventing the nomads' livestock from grazing and causing a massive die-off among the animals.[63] According to theNew Book of Tang, in 628, Taizong mentioned that "There has been a frost in midsummer. The sun had risen from same place for five days. The moon had had the same light level for three days. The field was filled with red atmosphere (dust storm)."[64]
Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626–630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur).[65]
On March 27, 630,[59] a Tang army under the command ofLi Jing defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at theBattle of Yinshan (陰山之戰 /阴山之战).[66][67][68] Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad, but on May 2, 630[69]Zhang Baoxiang's army advanced to Ishbara Shad's headquarters. Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang'an.[68] The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into theJimi system of the Tang. Emperor Taizong said, "It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River."[67]
The Western khaganShikui Khagan andTong Yabghu Qaghan made an alliance with theByzantine Empire against theSasanian Empire and defeated the Sasanians in 628, successfully restoring the southern borders along theTarim andAmu Darya rivers.[72] Their capital wasSuyab in theChu River valley, about 6 km (3.7 mi) south east of modernTokmok. In 627 Tung Yabghu, assisted by theKhazars andEmperor Heraclius, launched a massive invasion ofTranscaucasia which culminated in the taking ofDerbent andTbilisi. In April 630 Tung's deputyBöri Shad sent the Göktürk cavalry to invadeArmenia, where his generalChorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force. Tung Yabghu's murder in 630 forced the Göktürks to evacuate Transcaucasia.[citation needed]
The Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of theAshina clan (reigned 634–639) and came to be known as theOnoq.[73] The name refers to the "ten arrows" that were granted by the Khagan to ten leaders (shads) of its two constituent tribal confederations, theDuolu (fivechurs) andNushibi (fiveirkins), whose lands were divided by the Chui River.[73] The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies. Soon, chieftainKubrat of theDulo clan, whose relationship with the Duolu is possible but not proven, seceded from the khaganate. The Tang dynasty campaigned against the khaganate and its vassals, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin. TheTang campaign against Karakhoja in 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks, who were defeated during theTang campaigns against Karasahr in 644 and theTang campaign against Kucha in 648,[74][75] leading to the 657conquest of the Western Turks by the Tang generalSu Dingfang.[76]Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimedKhagan of the Göktürks in 658.[72]
TheTang retained a member of the Ashina clan as a puppet khagan of the Türks. In 639,Ashina Jiesheshuai attempted to killEmperor Taizong of Tang but failed, causing him to relocate the Türks. These khagans were not well respected among their peers and a new group of leaders known as theTurgesh were established by 699.[77]
In 657, the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern-dayIran. He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows (tribes) of Göktürks. The Five arrows of Tulu (咄陆) were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang (興昔亡可汗) while the Five Arrows of Nushipi (弩失畢可汗) were ruled by Jiwangjue (繼往絕可汗). The Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while the Five Arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea. The Göktürks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers – weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh.
TheSecond Turkic Khaganate was founded byIlterish Qaghan after rebelling against the Tang in 681.[80]
The population of the First Turkic Khaganate as a whole displayed genetic heterogeneity. Analysed remains displayed on average c. 62%Ancient Northeast Asian, c. 27%Western Steppe Herders, and c. 11%BMAC-associated ancestry.
Regarding theAshina tribe, the ruling clan of the Göktürks, a genetic sample belonging toPrincess Ashina was found to be nearly entirely derived from Ancient Northeast Asians (96-98%) and also displayed affinity for theSlab-grave culture. According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses".[81]Two Türk remains (GD1-1 and GD2-4) excavated from present-day eastern Mongolia analysed in a 2024 paper, were found to display only little to no West Eurasian ancestry. One of the Türk remains (GD1-1) was derived entirely from an Ancient Northeast Asian source (represented bySlabGrave1 or Khovsgol_LBA and Xianbei_Mogushan_IA), while the other Türk remain (GD2-4) displayed an "admixed profile" deriving c. 48−50% ancestry from Ancient Northeast Asians, c. 47% ancestry from an ancestry maximised inHan Chinese (represented by Han_2000BP), and 3−5% ancestry from a West Eurasian source (represented bySarmatians). The GD2-4 belonged to the paternalhaplogroup D-M174. The authors argue that these findings are "providing a new piece of information on this understudied period".[82]
.jpg)
![Turkic Balbal, Tuva, Siberia.[78][79]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBabal%2c_Kyzyl_-_capital_of_Tuva_-_Siberia.jpg)
![Turkic Balbal, Tuva, Siberia.[78][79]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKyzyl_-_capital_of_Tuva_-_Siberia_-_16760782050.jpg)
![Turkic Balbal, Kyrgyzstan.[78][79]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBurana%2c_Kyrgyzstan_(29724205397).jpg)
| History of the Turkic peoplespre–14th century | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| History ofCentral Asia | |||||||||||||||||||||
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The first people to use the ethnonymTurk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century
'Slave' probably meant vassalage to the Juan Juan [=Rouran or Ruanruan] qaghan, whom they [the Türks] served in battle by providing iron weapons, and also marching with the qaghan's armies.
The collapse of the Hephthalite domains made neighbours of the Türk Khāqānate and the Sasanian Empire, both sharing a border that ran the length of the River Oxus. Further Turkish expansion to the west and around the Caspian Sea saw them dominate the western steppes and its people and extend this frontier down to the Caucasus where they also shared a border with the Sasanians. Khusrow is noted at the time for improving the fortifications on either side of the Caspian, Bāb al-Abwāb at Derbent and the Great Wall of Gorgān.
"Mark Whittow directly suggests that this embassy reached an agreement for a joint attack on the Persians planned for 573.
![Tamga of Ashina tribe[1] of First Turkic Khaganate](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTamga_of_Ashina.png)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)At a subsequent embassy, Tardu yelled at Valentine in anger, venting his rage saying "Are you not those very Romans who use ten tongues and lie with all of them?
They [the Turks] were superstitious, treacherous, foul, faithless, possessed by an insatiate desire for riches. They scorn their oath, do not observe agreements, and are not satisfied by gifts. Even before they accept the gift, they are making plans for treachery and betrayal of their agreements. They are clever at estimating suitable opportunities to do this and taking prompt advantage of them. They prefer to prevail over their enemies not so much by force as by deceit, surprise attacks, and cutting off supplies.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)上自出玄武门，与高士廉、房玄龄等立骑径诣渭水上，与颉利隔水而语，责以负约。突厥大惊，皆下马罗拜。俄而诸军继至，旌甲蔽野，颉利见执失思力不返，而上挺身轻出，军容甚盛，有惧色。上麾诸军使却而布陈，独留与颉利语。萧瑀以上轻敌，叩马固谏，上曰："吾筹之已熟，非卿所知。突厥所以敢倾国而来，直抵郊甸者，以我国内有难，朕新即位，谓我不能抗御故也。我若示之心弱，闭门拒守，虏必放兵大掠，不可复制。故朕轻骑独出，示若轻之；又震曜军容，使之必战；出虏不意，使之失图。虏入我地既深，必有惧心，故与战则克，与和则固矣。制服突厥，在此一举，卿第观之！"
乙酉，又幸便桥，与颉利刑白马设盟，突厥引退。九月丙戌，颉利献马三千匹、羊万口
Current research shows that only during the time of the Turk qaghanates (552-630, 682-742 CE) were different types of stelae widely used in Inner Asia: there are rows of balbals in association with ritual sites, kamennye babas in association with memorials, and also inscription stelae were erected at important Turkic ritual sites [e.g., Kubarev, 1984; Voitov, 1996; Baiar, 1997].
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Inner Asia history series | |||||||||||||
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