| First Barbary War | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theBarbary Wars | |||||||
 USSEnterprise fighting the Tripolitan polaccaTripoli by William Bainbridge Hoff, 1878 | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 United States Sweden[1] Sicily[2][3] |  Ottoman Tripolitania[4][5] | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Thomas JeffersonRichard DaleRichard MorrisWilliam EatonEdward PrebleStephen DecaturGustav IV AdolfRudolf Cederström | Yusuf Karamanli Rais Mahomet Rous Hassan Bey Shadi Nazmi Reis | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| United States First Squadron: 4 frigates 1 schooner Second Squadron: 6 frigates 1 schooner Third Squadron: 2 frigates 3 brigs 2 schooners 1 ketch Swedish Royal Navy: 3 frigates William Eaton's invasion: 8US Marines, William Eaton, 3midshipmen, and several civilians Approx. 500Greek and Arab mercenaries | Various cruisers 11–20 gunboats 4,000 soldiers | ||||||
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|---|---|---|
Personal 2nd Vice President of the United States 3rd President of the United States
Tenure
Electoral history
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TheFirst Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as theTripolitan War and theBarbary Coast War, was a conflict during the 1801–1815Barbary Wars, in which the United States fought againstOttoman Tripolitania. Tripolitania had declared war against the United States over disputes regarding tributary payments in exchange for a cessation of Tripolitanian commerce raiding at sea. United States PresidentThomas Jefferson refused to pay this tribute. The First Barbary War was the first major American war fought outside theNew World, and in theArab world,[6][7] besides the smallerAmerican–Algerian War (1785–1795).
Barbary corsairs and crews from the quasi-independent[8] North AfricanOttoman provinces ofAlgiers,Tunis,Tripoli, and the independentSultanate of Morocco under theAlaouite dynasty (theBarbary Coast) were the scourge of theMediterranean.[9] Capturing merchant ships and enslaving or ransoming their crews provided the rulers of these nations with wealth and naval power. TheTrinitarian Order, or order of "Mathurins", had operated fromFrance for centuries with the special mission of collecting and disbursing funds for the relief and ransom of prisoners taken by Mediterranean pirates.
Barbary corsairs led attacks upon American merchant shipping in an attempt to extort ransom for the lives of captured sailors, and ultimatelytribute from the United States to avoid further attacks, as they had with the various European states.[10] Before theTreaty of Paris, which formalized the United States' independence fromGreat Britain, United States shipping was protected by France during the revolutionary years under theTreaty of Alliance (1778–83). Although the treaty does not mention the Barbary states in name, it refers to common enemies between both the United States and France. As such, piracy against United States shipping only began to occur after the end of theAmerican Revolution, when the United States government lost its protection under the Treaty of Alliance.
This lapse of protection by a European power led to the first American merchant ship being seized after the Treaty of Paris. On 11 October 1784, Moroccan pirates seized thebrigantineBetsey.[11] The Spanish government negotiated the freedom of the captured ship and crew; however, Spain advised the United States to offer tribute to prevent further attacks against merchant ships. The United States Minister to France,Thomas Jefferson, decided to send envoys to Morocco and Algeria to try to purchase treaties and the freedom of the captured sailors held by Algeria.[12] Morocco was the first Barbary Coast state to sign a treaty with the United States, on 23 June 1786. This treaty formally ended all Moroccan piracy against American shipping interests. Specifically, article six of the treaty states that if any Americans captured by Moroccans or other Barbary Coast states docked at a Moroccan city, they would be set free and come under the protection of Morocco.[13]
American diplomatic action with Algeria, the other major Barbary Coast state, was much less productive than with Morocco. Algeria began piracy against the United States on 25 July 1785 with the capture of theschoonerMaria, andDauphin a week later.[14] All four Barbary Coast states demanded $660,000 each (equivalent to $16 million in 2024). However, the envoys were given only an allocated budget of $40,000 (equivalent to $960,000 in 2024) to achieve peace.[12] Diplomatic talks to reach a reasonable sum for tribute or for the ransom of the captured sailors struggled to make any headway. The crews ofMaria andDauphin remained enslaved for over a decade, joined by crews of other ships captured by the Barbary states.[15]
In March 1786, Jefferson andJohn Adams went toLondon to negotiate with Tripoli's envoy, ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman (or Sidi Haji Abdul Rahman Adja). When they enquired "concerning the ground of the pretensions to make war upon nations who had done them no injury", the ambassador replied:
It was written in their Koran, that all nations which had not acknowledged the Prophet were sinners, whom it was the right and duty of the faithful to plunder and enslave; and that every mussulman who was slain in this warfare was sure to go to paradise. He said, also, that the man who was the first to board a vessel had one slave over and above his share, and that when they sprang to the deck of an enemy's ship, every sailor held a dagger in each hand and a third in his mouth; which usually struck such terror into the foe that they cried out for quarter at once.[22]
Jefferson reported the conversation to Secretary of Foreign AffairsJohn Jay, who submitted the ambassador's comments and offer toCongress. The incident convinced Jefferson that paying further tribute would do nothing to prevent more attacks. Although Adams agreed with Jefferson, he believed that circumstances forced the United States to pay tribute; the United States had just fought an exhausting war, which put the nation deep into debt and unable to finance the establishment of a navy.[23][24]
Various letters and testimonies by captured sailors described their time in captivity. Barbary Coast imprisonment was different from that practiced by the United States and the European powers of the time.[25] Prisoners were able to obtain wealth and property, along with achieving status beyond that of a slave. One such example wasJames Leander Cathcart, who rose to the highest position a Christian slave could achieve in Algeria, becoming an adviser to thedey (governor).[26] Even so, most captives could expect little more than lives of hard labor and abuse, and struggled under extremely poor conditions that exposed them tovermin and disease. As word of their treatment reached the United States, through freed captives' narratives and letters, Americans pushed for Congress to take military action against the Barbary states.
On 19 July 1794, Congress appropriated $800,000 (equivalent to $17 million in 2024) for the release of American prisoners and for a peace treaty with Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.[27] On 5 September 1795, American negotiator Joseph Donaldson signed a peace treaty with the dey of Algiers that included an upfront payment of $642,500 in specie (silver coinage, equivalent to $12 million in 2024) for peace, the release of American captives, various expenses for their care, and various gifts for the dey's royal court and family.[28] An additional indefinite yearly tribute of $21,600 (equivalent to $400,000 in 2024) in shipbuilding supplies and ammunition would be given to the dey.[28] The treaty, designed to prevent further piracy, resulted in the release of 115 American sailors held captive by the dey.[29]
Jefferson continued to argue for cessation of the tribute, with rising support from PresidentGeorge Washington and others. With the recommissioning of theUnited States Navy in 1794 and a rush of new ships and weapons, it became increasingly possible for America to cease payments, although the established habit was difficult to change.[30] The continuing demand for tribute ultimately led to the formation of theUnited States Department of the Navy, founded in 1798[31] to prevent further attacks upon American shipping while resolving the issue of Barbary piracy.Federalist andAnti-Federalist forces argued over the needs of the country and the burden of taxation. Jefferson's ownDemocratic-Republicans and anti-navalists believed that the future of the country lay inwestward expansion, arguing that the Atlantic trade threatened to siphon money and energy away from the nation while entangling it in the wars and intrigue of theOld World.[23] During the divisive1800 presidential election, Jefferson defeated incumbent President John Adams. Jefferson was poised to order naval actions against the Barbary states.[30]
Just before Jefferson's inauguration in March 1801, Congress passed naval legislation that, among other things, provided forsix frigates that "shall be officered and manned as the President of the United States may direct." In the event of a declaration of war on the United States by the Barbary powers, these ships were to "protect our commerce and chastise their insolence—by sinking, burning or destroying their ships and vessels wherever you shall find them."[32] On Jefferson's inauguration,Yusuf Karamanli, thePasha (orBashaw) of Tripoli, demanded $225,000 (equivalent to $4.3 million in 2024) from the United States. It was a long-standing tradition that if a government was changed or the consular was changed, said government would have to pay 'consular' gifts, in either gold or in goods, usually military and naval stores.[33] (In 1800, federal revenues totaled a little over $10 million, equivalent to $190 million in 2024.) Finally able to put his long-held beliefs into practice, Jefferson refused the demand. Consequently—along with the Americans not paying the money nor the gifts as stated in theTreaty of Tripoli signed in 1796 between Tripoli and America—[33] on 10 May 1801, Karamanli declared war on the United States, not through any formal written documents but in the customary Barbary manner of cutting down the flagstaff in front of theUnited States Consulate.[34] Algiers and Tunis did not follow suit.
Before learning that Tripoli had declared war, Jefferson sent a small squadron consisting of three frigates and one schooner, under the command of CommodoreRichard Dale, with gifts and letters to attempt to maintain peace with the Barbary powers.[35] However, if war had been declared, then Dale was instructed to "protect American ships and citizens against potential aggression"; Jefferson made it clear that he was "unauthorized by theconstitution, without the sanction of Congress, to go beyond the line of defense." He told Congress: "I communicate [to you] all material information on this subject, that in the exercise of thisimportant function confided by the constitution to the legislature exclusively their judgment may form itself on a knowledge and consideration of every circumstance of weight."[36] Although Congress never voted on a formal declaration of war, it authorized the president to instruct the commanders of armed American vessels to seize all vessels and goods of the Pasha of Tripoli "and also to cause to be done all such other acts of precaution or hostility as the state of war will justify." The American squadron joined a Swedish flotilla underRudolf Cederström in blockading Tripoli, the Swedes having been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800.[citation needed]
On 31 May 1801, Dale's successor, CommodoreEdward Preble, traveled toMessina, Sicily, to the court of KingFerdinand IV of theKingdom of Naples. The kingdom was atwar with Napoleon, but Ferdinand saw an opportunity and supplied the Americans with manpower, craftsmen, supplies, gunboats, mortar boats, and the ports of Messina,Syracuse, andPalermo to be used as naval bases for launching operations against Tripoli. Tripoli was a fortress city protected by 150 pieces of heavy artillery and manned by 25,000 soldiers, assisted by a fleet of 10 ten-gunned brigs, 2 eight-gun schooners, two largegalleys, and 19gunboats.[37]
Thefirst action of the campaign took place on 1 August 1801, when the armed schoonerEnterprise (commanded by Lieutenant Andrew Sterret) defeated the 14-gun Tripolitan corsairTripoli in battle.
In 1802, in response to Jefferson's request for a formal authorization of anti-piracy efforts, Congress passed "An act for the protection of commerce and seamen of the United States against the Tripolitan cruisers", authorizing the president to "employ such of the armed vessels of the United States as may be judged requisite... for protecting effectually the commerce and seamen thereof on the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and adjoining seas."[38] The statute authorized American ships to seize vessels belonging to the pasha of Tripoli, with the captured property distributed to those who brought the vessels into port.[36]
The United States Navy went unchallenged on the sea, but the question of how far to push the conflict remained. Jefferson pressed the issue the following year, with an increase in military force and deployment of many of the Navy's best ships to the region throughout 1802.USS Argus,Chesapeake,Constellation,USS Constitution,Enterprise,Intrepid,Philadelphia,Vixen,President,Congress,Essex,John Adams,Nautilus,Scourge,Syren, andHornet (joined in 1805) all saw service during the war, under the overall command of Preble. Throughout 1803, Preble set up and maintained a blockade of the Barbary ports while taking action to seize and harass their fleets.
In October 1803, Tripoli's fleet captured the USSPhiladelphia intact after the frigate ran aground on a reef while patrolling Tripoli harbor. Efforts by the Americans to refloat the ship while under fire from shorebatteries and Tripolitan naval units failed. The ship, her captainWilliam Bainbridge, and all officers and crew were taken ashore and held as hostages.Philadelphia was subsequently converted into a floating battery for harbor defense.
On the night of 16 February 1804, CaptainStephen Decatur led a small detachment ofUnited States Marines aboard the captured Tripolitanketch rechristenedIntrepid, thus deceiving the guards onPhiladelphia to float close enough to board her. Decatur's men stormed the ship and overpowered the Tripolitan sailors. With fire support from American warships, the Marines set fire toPhiladelphia and destroyed her.
Preble attacked Tripoli on 14 July 1804, kicking off a series of inconclusive battles, including an unsuccessful attempt to useIntrepid under CaptainRichard Somers as afire ship, packed with explosives and sent to enter Tripoli harbor.Intrepid was destroyed, possibly by enemy gunfire, before she achieved her goal, killing Somers and his entire crew.[39]
The turning point in the war was the Battle of Derna (April–May 1805). Ex-consulWilliam Eaton, a former Army captain who used the title of "general", and Marine Corps 1st LieutenantPresley O'Bannon led a force of eight Marines[40] and 500 mercenaries—Greeks from Crete,Arabs, andBerbers—on a march across the desert fromAlexandria, Egypt, to capture the Tripolitan city ofDerna. This was the first time the United States flag was raised in victory on foreign soil. The action is memorialized in a line of theMarines' Hymn—"the shores of Tripoli".[41] The capturing of the city gave American negotiators leverage in securing the return of hostages and the end of the war.[42]
Wearied of the blockade and raids, and now under threat of a continued advance on Tripoli proper and a scheme to restore his deposed older brother Hamet Karamanli as ruler, Yusuf Karamanli signed theTreaty of Tripoli ending hostilities on 10 June 1805. Article 2 of the treaty reads:
The Bashaw of Tripoli shall deliver up to the American squadron now off Tripoli, all the Americans in his possession; and all the subjects of the Bashaw of Tripoli now in the power of the United States of America shall be delivered up to him; and as the number of Americans in possession of the Bashaw of Tripoli amounts to three hundred persons, more or less; and the number of Tripolino subjects in the power of the Americans to about, one hundred more or less; The Bashaw of Tripoli shall receive from the United States of America, the sum of sixty thousand dollars, as a payment for the difference between the prisoners herein mentioned.[43]
In agreeing to pay a ransom of $60,000 (equivalent to $1.3 million in 2024) for the American prisoners, the Jefferson administration drew a distinction between payingtribute and payingransom. At the time, some argued that buying sailors out of slavery was a fair exchange to end the war. Eaton, however, remained bitter for the rest of his life about the treaty, feeling that his efforts had been squandered by the American emissary from theUnited States Department of State, diplomatTobias Lear. Eaton and others felt that the capture of Derna should have been used as a bargaining chip to obtain the release of all American prisoners without having to pay ransom. Furthermore, Eaton believed the honor of the United States had been compromised when it abandoned Hamet Karamanli after promising to restore him as leader of Tripoli. Eaton's complaints generally went unheard, especially as attention turned to the strained international relations which would ultimately lead to the withdrawal of the United States Navy from the area in 1807 and to theWar of 1812.[44]
The outcome of the war is a matter of dispute among historians. Many historians view the war as an American victory.[51] But some historians claim that the war was inconclusive[52][53] or was a long-term success for Tripoli.[54][55] The First Barbary War was beneficial to the reputation of the United States' military command and war mechanism, which had been up to that time relatively untested. The First Barbary War showed that the United States could execute a war far from home, and that American forces had the cohesion to fight together as Americans rather than separately asGeorgians,New Yorkers, etc. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps became a permanent part of theUnited States government and United States history, and Decatur returned to the United States as its first post-revolutionary war hero.[56]
However, the more immediate problem of Barbary piracy was not fully settled. By 1807, Algiers had reassembled its fleets and resumed taking American ships and seamen hostage. Distracted by the preludes to the War of 1812, the United States was unable to respond to the provocation until 1815, with theSecond Barbary War, in which naval victories by Commodores William Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur led to treaties ending all tribute payments by the United States.[57]
TheTripoli Monument,[58] the oldest military monument in the United States, honors the American heroes of the First Barbary War: Somers (by then promoted to the rank ofmaster commandant), Lieutenant James Caldwell, James Decatur (brother of Stephen Decatur), Henry Wadsworth,Joseph Israel and John Dorsey. Originally known as theNaval Monument, it was carved ofCarrara marble in Italy in 1806 and brought to the United States on boardConstitution ("Old Ironsides"). From its original location in theWashington Navy Yard, it was moved to the west terrace of the national Capitol and finally, in 1860, to theUnited States Naval Academy inAnnapolis, Maryland.[59]
During the war, the United States was successful in defeating Trip-oli and raised the U.S. flag in victory on foreign soil for the first time.
