Filipino Americans (Filipino:Mga Pilipinong Amerikano) areAmericans ofFilipino ancestry. Filipinos in North America were first documented in the 16th century[9] and other small settlements beginning in the 18th century.[10] Mass migration did not begin until after the end of theSpanish–American War at the end of the 19th century, when the Philippines was ceded from Spain to the United States in theTreaty of Paris.[11][12]
As of 2022, there were almost 4.5 million Filipino Americans in the United States[13][14] with large communities inCalifornia,Hawaii,Illinois,Texas,Florida,Nevada, and theNew York metropolitan area.[15] Around one third of Filipino Americans identify asmultiracial or multiethnic, with 3 million reporting only Filipino ancestry and 1.5 million reporting Filipino in combination with another group.[16][17]
The termFilipino American is sometimes shortened toFil-Am[18] orPinoy.[19] Another term which has been used isPhilippine Americans.[20] The earliest appearance of the termPinoy (femininePinay), was in a 1926 issue of theFilipino Student Bulletin.[21] Some Filipinos believe that the termPinoy was coined by Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines.[22] Beginning in 2017, started by individuals who identify with the LGBT+ Filipino-American population, there is an effort to adopt the termFilipinX; this new term has faced opposition within the broader overseas Filipino diaspora, within the Philippines, and in the United States, with some who are in opposition believing it is an attempt of a "colonial imposition".[23]
Filipino were among the firstAsians in North America.[24] The first documented presence of Filipinos in what is now the United States dates back to a visit made by aNovohispanic ship sailing back to modern day Mexico in October 1587 aroundMorro Bay, California,[25] with the first settlement of a handful of Filipinos who deserted Spanish ships being inSaint Malo,Spanish Louisiana, in 1763,[26] the settlers there were called "Manilamen" and they served in theBattle of New Orleans during the closing stages of theWar of 1812, after theTreaty of Ghent had already been signed.[27][28] Some Filipinos worked as ranch hands in the 1800s.[29] There was also a settlement in Plaquemines Parish, which became known as "Manila Village". This area was the center of the shrimp drying industry in Louisiana, and its workforce was composed predominantly of Filipino migrants.[30] Mass migration began in the early 20th century when, for a period following the1898 Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was aterritory of the United States. By 1904, Filipino peoples of different ethnic backgrounds were imported by the US government onto the Americas and were displayed at theLouisiana Purchase Exposition as part of ahuman zoo.[31][32] During the 1920s, many Filipinos immigrated to the United States as unskilled labor, to provide better opportunities for their families back at home.[33]
Philippine independence was recognized by the United States on July 4, 1946. Afterindependence in 1946, Filipino-American numbers continued to grow. Immigration was reduced significantly during the 1930s, except for those who served in theUnited States Navy, and increased followingimmigration reform in the 1960s.[34] The majority of Filipinos who immigrated after the passage of theImmigration and Nationality Act of 1965 were skilled professionals and technicians.[33]
Despite being fromAsia, Filipinos are sometimes called "Latinos" due to their historical relationship toSpanish colonialism;[45] this view is not universally accepted.[46] The Philippines experienced both Spanish and American colonial territorial status,[a] with its population seen through each nation's racial constructs.[56] This shared history may also contribute to why some Filipinos choose to also identify as Hispanic or Latino, while others may not and identify more as Asian Americans.[57] In a 2017 Pew Research Survey, only 1% of immigrants from the Philippines identified as Hispanic.[58]
Filipino and English areconstitutionally established as official languages in the Philippines, and Filipino is designated as the national language, with English in wide use.[59] Many Filipinos speakPhilippine English, a dialect derived fromAmerican English due toAmerican colonial influence in the country'seducation system and due to limitedSpanisheducation.[60] Among Asian Americans in 1990, Filipino Americans had the smallest percentage of individuals who had problems with English.[61] In 2000, among US-born Filipino Americans, three quarters responded that English is their primary language;[62] nearly half of Filipino Americans speak English exclusively.[63]
In 2003,Tagalog was the fifth-most-spoken language in the United States, with 1.262 million speakers;[5] by 2011, it was the fourth most-spoken language in the United States.[64] Tagalog usage is significant in California, Nevada, and Washington, whileIlocano usage is significant in Hawaii.[65] Many ofCalifornia's public announcements and documents are translated into Tagalog.[66]Tagalog is also taught in some public schools in the United States, as well as at some colleges.[67] Other significant Filipino languages areIlocano andCebuano.[68] Other languages spoken in Filipino-American households includePangasinan,Kapampangan,Hiligaynon,Bicolano andWaray.[69] However, fluency inPhilippine languages tends to be lost among second- and third-generation Filipino Americans.[70] Other languages of the community includeSpanish andChinese (Hokkien andMandarin).[6] The demonym,Filipinx, is a gender-neutral term that is applied only to those of Filipino heritage in the diaspora, specifically Filipino Americans. The term is not applied to Filipinos in the Philippines.[71][72]
During the early part of the United States governance in the Philippines, there was a concerted effort toconvert Filipinos into Protestants, and the results came with varying success.[77] As Filipinos began to migrate to the United States, Filipino Roman Catholics were often not embraced by theirAmerican Catholic brethren, nor were they sympathetic to a Filipino-ized Catholicism, in the early 20th century.[78][79] This led to creation of ethnic-specific parishes;[78][80] one such parish was St. Columban's Church in Los Angeles.[81] In 1997, the Filipino oratory was dedicated at theBasilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, owing to increased diversity within the congregations of American Catholic parishes.[82] The first-ever American Church for Filipinos,San Lorenzo Ruiz Church in New York City, is named after the first saint from the Philippines,San Lorenzo Ruiz. This was officially designated as a church for Filipinos in July 2005, the first in the United States, and the second in the world, aftera church in Rome.[83]
In 2010, Filipino American Catholics were the largest population of Asian American Catholics, making up more than three fourths of Asian American Catholics.[84] In 2015, a majority (65%) of Filipino Americans identify as Catholic;[85] this is down slightly from 2004 (68%).[86] Filipino Americans, who arefirst-generation immigrants were more likely to attend mass weekly, and tended to be moreconservative, than those who were born in the United States.[87] Culturally, some traditions and beliefs rooted from theoriginal indigenous religions of Filipinos are still known among the Filipino diaspora.[88][89]
Filipino Americans have traditionally been socially conservative,[90] particularly with "second wave" immigrants;[91] the first Filipino American elected to office wasPeter Aduja.[92] In the2004 US presidential election Republican presidentGeorge W. Bush won the Filipino-American vote overJohn Kerry by nearly a two-to-one ratio,[93] which followed strong support in the2000 election.[94] However, during the2008 US presidential election, Filipino Americans voted majority Democratic, with 50% to 58% of the community voting for PresidentBarack Obama and 42% to 46% voting for SenatorJohn McCain.[95][96] The 2008 election marked the first time that a majority of Filipino Americans voted for a Democratic presidential candidate.[97]
In a survey conducted by the advocacy group Asian Americans Advancing Justice in September 2020, of the 263 Filipino American respondents, 46% identified as Democrats, 28% identified as Republicans, and 16% as independent.[102] According to interviews conducted by academic Anthony Ocampo, Filipino American supporters ofDonald Trump cited their support for the former President based on support for building aborder wall, tax cuts to businesses, legal immigration,school choice, opposition to abortion, opposition to affirmative action, antagonism towards the People's Republic of China, and viewing Trump as a non-racist.[103] There was an age divide among Filipino Americans, with older Filipino Americans more likely to support Trump or be Republicans, and younger Filipino Americans more likely to support Biden or be Democrats.[104] In the2020 presidential election, Philippines AmbassadorJose Manuel Romualdez alleged that 60% of Filipino Americans reportedly voted forJoe Biden.[105] Filipino Americans were among those who were at the2021 United States Capitol attack.[106] The news site Rappler reported the next day that Filipino-American media has heavily repeatedQAnon conspiracies.[107] Rappler further reported that many Filipino Americans who voted for Trump and adhere to QAnon cite similar political opinions in the Philippines regarding Philippine PresidentRodrigo Duterte andanti-Chinese sentiment since China has beenbuilding artificial reefs in the South China Sea near the Philippines in the 2010s, and have recently seen the Republican Party as more hardline against the Chinese government's actions.[108] Filipino Americans have also been more receptive togun rights compared to other Asian-American ethnic groups.[109] This is in part due tothe lax gun laws in the Philippines.[109]
In the2024 election, most Filipino Americans have responded to a survey indicating 59% of them found Vice PresidentKamala Harris more favorably, while 29% found former President Donald Trump favorable.[110]
Due to scattered living patterns, it is nearly impossible for Filipino American candidates to win an election solely based on the Filipino-American vote.[111] Filipino-American politicians have increased their visibility over the past few decades.Ben Cayetano (Democrat), former governor ofHawaii, became the first governor of Filipino descent in the United States. The number of Congressional members of Filipino descent doubled to numbers not reachedsince 1937,two when thePhilippine Islands were represented by non-votingResident Commissioners, due to the2000 senatorial election. In 2009 three Congress-members claimed at least one-eighth Filipino ethnicity;[112] the largest number to date. Since the resignation of SenatorJohn Ensign in 2011[113] (the only Filipino American to have been a member of theSenate), and RepresentativeSteve Austria (the onlyAsian Pacific American Republican in the112th Congress[114]) choosing not to seek reelection and retire,[115] RepresentativeRobert C. Scott was the only Filipino American in the113th Congress.[116] In the116th United States Congress, Scott was joined by Rep.TJ Cox, bringing the number of Filipino Americans in Congress to two.[117] In the117th United States Congress, Scott once again became the sole Filipino-American Representative after Cox was defeated in a rematch againstDavid Valadao.[118]
Most Filipino-American registered voters identify with or lean to the Democratic Party. About two-thirds of Filipino-American voters (68%) are Democrats or lean Democratic, while 31% are Republicans or lean Republican.[119]
Filipino Americans are largely middle class with 62% of households being middle income.[2] However, only 21% of Filipino-American households are Upper Income compared to 27% for all Asian households. They are less likely to be Upper Income than all Asians. Filipino Americans have high labor force participation rates and 67% of Filipino Americans are employed.[120]
Filipino Americans are more likely to live in larger, overcrowded (8.7% of Filipino housing units compared to 3.5% of total population), multi-generational (34%) households compared to the general population. The average household size for Filipino Americans in 2023 was 2.99 compared to 2.49 for the general population.[121][122][123]
The impressive annual median household income and low poverty rates must be approached with caution, for median household income represents the combined earnings of several family or household members often living in crowded and less than adequate houses.[124]
While the median household income for Filipino alone was high, per capita income for Filipino Americans was $47,819 which was significantly lower than for all Asians ($55,561) and Non-Hispanic Whites ($50,675). Individual earnings for both Filipino males and females were significantly lower than all Asians, suggesting multiple earners in a household.[125][126] Filipino-American full-time, year-round workers were paid lower than the US average and had a lower average hourly wage of $29.35 than the US average of $29.95 and AAPI average of $30.73[127]
Only 39% of Filipino American men (ages 25–34) had attained a Bachelor’s degree, in comparison to 87% of Asian Indian American men, 69% of Chinese American men, 63% of Japanese American men, 62% of Korean American men, and 42 percent of Vietnamese American men. The same study showed that Filipino, Korean and Cambodian men with Bachelor's degrees have lower median wages of $30 an hour compared to Chinese and Indian immigrant men who had median wages of $40 an hour[128]
Filipino American households in Los Angeles had a net worth of $243,000 with $5,000 in debts compared to a net worth of $355,000 for White households, $595,000 for Japanese households, $408,500 for Chinese households and $460,000 for Indian American households.[129]
Filipino Americans had a significantly higher rate offood insecurity (11%) than all Asians and White Americans (6%).[130]
Filipino Americans had a lower poverty rate (7%) than the total population, this correlates with the Filipino-American unemployment rate being only 3% and a high labor force participation rate of 67%.[131][132]
There is a trend of second-generation Filipino Americans moving back to the Philippines, finding theAmerican Dream more and more unattainable. They cite lower cost of living as the main reasons they would move back to the Philippines.[133][134] There is also a trend of Filipino Americans relocating from Hawaii and California to Nevada due to rising cost of living and housing prices.[135]
The representation of Filipino Americans employed inhealth care is high.[137][138][139] Other sectors of the economy where Filipino Americans have significant representation are in thepublic sector,[140] and in theservice sector.[141][142] Compared to Asian-American women of other ethnicities, andwomen in the United States in general, Filipina Americans are more likely to be part of the work force;[143] a large population, nearly one fifth (18%), of Filipina Americans worked as registered nurses.[144] There is also a large number of Filipino domestic workers and care-givers in the US.[145][146] More than 60% of Filipino Americans work in low-wage and/or service-sector work.[3]
Filipino Americans own a variety of businesses, making up 10.5% of all Asian owned businesses in the United States in 2007.[147] In 2002, according to theSurvey of Business Owners, there were over 125,000 Filipino-owned businesses; this increased by 30.4% to over 163,000 in 2007.[148] By then, 25.4% of these businesses were in theretail industry, 23% were in thehealth care and social assistance industries,[149] and they employed more than 142,000 people and generated almost $15.8 billion in revenue.[147] Of those, just under three thousand (1.8% of all Filipino-owned businesses) were million dollar or more businesses. This means Filipino-owned businesses are significantly less likely to be million dollar or more than all Asians (5%).[150][151] California had the largest number of Filipino-owned businesses, with theLos Angeles metropolitan area having the largest number of any metropolitan area in the United States.[147]
The Philippines is the largest exporters of Nurses and this is something that can be traced back to US colonialism.[152] America has been relying on Filipino nurses on the frontlines since the AIDs pandemic. Despite making up only 4% of Registered Nurses in the US, the make up nearly a third of Covid-related deaths among registered nurses.[153][154]
American schools have also hired and sponsored the immigration of Filipino teachers and instructors.[155] Some of these teachers were forced into labor outside the field of education, and mistreated by their recruiters.[156]
AmongOverseas Filipinos, Filipino Americans are the largest remitters of US dollars to the Philippines. In 2005, their combined dollarremittances reached a record-high of almost $6.5 billion. In 2006, Filipino Americans sent more than $8 billion, which represents 57% of the total foreign remittances received by the Philippines.[157] By 2012, this amount had reached $10.6 billion, but made up only 43% of total remittances.[158] In 2021, the United States was the largest source of remittances to the Philippines, making up 40.5% of the $31.4 billion remittances received by the Philippines.[159]
The history ofSpanish andAmerican rule and contact with merchants and traders culminated in a unique blend of Eastern and Western cultures in the Philippines.[160] Filipino-American cultural identity has been described as fluid, adopting aspects from various cultures;[161] however, there has not been significant research into the culture of Filipino Americans.[162]Fashion, dance,music,theater and arts have all had roles in building Filipino-American cultural identities and communities.[163][page needed]
In areas of sparse Filipino population, they often form loosely-knit social organizations aimed at maintaining a "sense of family", which is a key feature of Filipino culture. These organizations generally arrange social events, especially of a charitable nature, and keep members up-to-date with local events.[164] Organizations are often organized into regional associations.[165] The associations are a small part of Filipino-American life. Filipino Americans formed close-knit neighborhoods, notably in California and Hawaii.[166] A few communities have "Little Manilas", civic and business districts tailored for the Filipino-American community.[167] In a Filipino party, shoes should be left in the front of the house and greet everyone with a hi or hello. When greeting older relatives,'po' and'opo' must be said in every sentence to show respect.[168]
Due tohistory, the Philippines and the United States are connectedculturally.[169] In 2016, there was $16.5 billion worth of trade between the two countries, with the United States being the largest foreign investor in the Philippines, and more than 40% ofremittances came from (or through) the United States.[170] In 2004, the amount of remittances coming from the United States was $5 billion;[171] this is an increase from the $1.16 billion sent in 1991 (then about 80% of total remittances being sent to the Philippines), and the $324 million sent in 1988.[172] Some Filipino Americans have chosen to retire in the Philippines, buying real estate.[173][174] Filipino Americans, continue to travel back and forth between the United States and the Philippines, making up more than a tenth of all foreign travelers to the Philippines in 2010;[174][175] when traveling back to the Philippines they often bring cargo boxes known as abalikbayan box.[176]
The number of Filipino restaurants does not reflect the size of the population.[177][178][179] Due to the restaurant business not being a major source of income for the community, few non-Filipinos are familiar with the cuisine.[180] Although American cuisine influenced Filipino cuisine,[181] it has been criticized by non-Filipinos.[182] Even onOahu where there is a significant Filipino-American population,[183] Filipino cuisine is not as noticeable as otherAsian cuisines.[184] One study found that Filipino cuisine was not often listed infood frequency questionnaires.[185] On television, Filipino cuisine has been criticized, such as onFear Factor,[186] and praised, such as onAnthony Bourdain: No Reservations,[187] andBizarre Foods America.[188]
While "new" Filipino restaurants and fusion-type places have been opening up, traditionally, "native cuisine proved itself strong and resistant to 'fraternization' with foreign invaders. The original dishes have retained their ingredients, cooking methods, and spirit."
Filipino cuisine is much like its culture, a blend of many influences through the years of colonization. Popular Filipino dishes such aspancit has Hokkien roots,adobo from Spain and Mexico, and the use ofbagoong andpatis, fermented sauces that stem from Malay origins.[189]
Filipino-American chefs cook in many fine dining restaurants,[190] includingCristeta Comerford who is the executive chef in theWhite House,[178] though many do not serve Filipino cuisine in their restaurants.[190] Reasons given for the lack of Filipino cuisine in the US includecolonial mentality,[179] lack of a clear identity,[179] a preference for cooking at home,[178] a continuing preference of Filipino Americans for cuisines other than their own,[191] and the nebulous nature of Filipino cuisine itself due to its historical influences.[192]Filipino cuisine remains prevalent among Filipino immigrants,[193] with restaurants andgrocery stores catering to the Filipino-American community,[177][194] includingJollibee, a Philippines-basedfast-foodchain.[195]
In the 2010s, successful and critically reviewed Filipino-American restaurants were featured inThe New York Times.[196] That same decade began a Filipino Food movement in the United States;[197] it has been criticized forgentrification of the cuisine.[198]Bon Appetit namedBad Saint in Washington, D.C. "the second best new restaurant in the United States" in 2016.[199]Food & Wine named Lasa, in Los Angeles, one of its restaurants of the year in 2018.[200] With this emergence of Filipino-American restaurants, food critics likeAndrew Zimmern have predicted that Filipino food will be "the next big thing" in American cuisine.[201] Yet in 2017,Vogue described the cuisine as "misunderstood and neglected";[202]SF Weekly in 2019, later described the cuisine as "marginal, underappreciated, and prone to weird booms-and-busts".[203]
Filipino Americans undergo experiences that are unique to their own identities. These experiences derive from both the Filipino culture and American cultures individually and the dueling of these identities as well. These stressors, if great enough, can lead Filipino Americans into suicidal behaviors.[204] Members of the Filipino community learn early on aboutkapwa, which is defined as "interpersonal connectedness or togetherness".[205]
Withkapwa, many Filipino Americans have a strong sense of needing to repay their family members for the opportunities that they have been able to receive. An example of this is a new college graduate feeling the need to find a job that will allow them to financially support their family and themselves. This notion comes from"utang na loob", defined as a debt that must be repaid to those who have supported the individual.[206]
Withkapwa andutang na loob as strong forces enacting on the individual, there is an "all or nothing" mentality that is being played out. In order to bring success back to one's family, there is a desire to succeed for one's family through living out a family's wants as opposed to one's own true desires.[207] This can manifest as one entering a career path that they are not passionate in, but select in order to help support their family.[208]
Despite many of the stressors for these students deriving from family, it also becomes apparent that these are the reasons that these students are resilient. When family conflict rises in Filipino-American families, there is a negative association with suicide attempts.[204] This suggests that though family is a presenting stressor in a Filipino American's life, it also plays a role for their resilience.[204] In a study conducted by Yusuke Kuroki, family connectedness, whether defined as positive or negative to each individual, served as one means of lowering suicide attempts.[204]
Beginning in the late 1800s, Filipino Americans began publishing books in the United States.[209] The growth of publications for themasses in the Philippines accelerated during the American period.[209]Ethnic media serving Filipino Americans dates back to the beginning of the 20th century.[210] In 1905,pensionados atUniversity of California, Berkeley publishedThe Filipino Students' Magazine.[211] One of the earliest Filipino-American newspapers published in the United States, was thePhilippine Independent ofSalinas, California, which began publishing in 1921.[211] Newspapers from the Philippines, to includeThe Manila Times, also served the Filipino diaspora in the United States.[210] In 1961, thePhilippine News was started byAlex Esclamado, which by the 1980s had a national reach and at the time was the largest English-language Filipino newspaper.[212] While many areas with Filipino Americans have local Filipino newspapers, one of the largest concentrations of these newspapers occur in Southern California.[213] Beginning in 1992,Filipinas began publication, and was unique in that it focused on American-born Filipino Americans of the second and third generations.[210]Filipinas ended its run in 2010, however it was succeeded byPositively Filipino in 2012 which included some of the staff fromFilipinas.[214] The Filipino diaspora in the United States are able to watch programming from the Philippines on television throughGMA Pinoy TV andThe Filipino Channel.[215][216]
Filipinos all over the world may be far from their country, thePhilippines, but that does not change the rules of sports or the impact of sports on theFilipino diaspora. The idea of sportsmanship and the values of an athlete transfer on Filipino Americans as well as values originating from the Philippines itself. Watching sports also make a huge impact on the Filipino American community in coherence with playing the sports. Sports brings Filipinos together no matter what distance from the Philippines they are and for many Filipino Americans it brings that sense of community and a sense of home. All sports, especiallybasketball, has a culture aspect among Filipino Americans and other Filipinos around the world.
Quarters for Filipino workers at a salmon cannery in Nushagak, Alaska in 1917.Company labor camp for Filipino farm laborers onRyer Island in 1940
The Citizenship Retention and Re-Acquisition Act of 2003 (Republic Act No. 9225) made Filipino Americans eligible for dual citizenship in the United States and the Philippines.[217] Overseas suffrage was first employed in the May 2004 elections in which Philippine PresidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo was reelected to a second term.[218]
By 2005, about 6,000 Filipino Americans had become dual citizens of the two countries.[219] One effect of this act was to allow Filipino Americans to invest in the Philippines through land purchases, which are limited to Filipino citizens, and, with some limitations, former citizens.[220]), vote in Philippine elections, retire in the Philippines, and participate in representing the Philippine flag. In 2013, for thePhilippine general election there were 125,604 registered Filipino voters in the United States andCaribbean, of which only 13,976 voted.[221]
The Philippine government actively encourages Filipino Americans to visit or return permanently to the Philippines via the "Balikbayan" program and to invest in the country.[224]
Filipinos remain one of the largest immigrant groups to date with over 40,000 arriving annually since 1979.[225] TheUnited States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has a preference system for issuingvisas to non-citizen family members of US citizens, with preference based generally on familial closeness. Some non-citizen relatives of US citizens spend long periods on waiting lists.[226] Petitions for immigrant visas, particularly for siblings of previously naturalized Filipinos that date back to 1984, were not granted until 2006.[227] As of 2016[update], over 380 thousand Filipinos were on the visa wait list, second only toMexico and ahead ofIndia,Vietnam andChina.[228] Filipinos have the longest waiting times for family reunification visas, as Filipinos disproportionately apply for family visas; this has led to visa petitions filed in July 1989 still waiting to be processed in March 2013.[229]
It has been documented that Filipinos were among those naturalized due to theImmigration Reform and Control Act of 1986.[230] In 2009, theDepartment of Homeland Security estimated that 270,000 Filipino were "unauthorized immigrants". This was an increase of 70,000 from a previous estimate in 2000. In both years, Filipinos accounted for 2% of the total. As of 2009[update], Filipinos were the fifth-largest community ofillegal immigrants behindMexico (6.65 million, 62%),El Salvador (530,000, 5%),Guatemala (480,000, 4%), andHonduras (320,000, 3%).[231] In January 2011, the Department of Homeland Security estimate of "unauthorized immigrants" from the Philippines remained at 270,000.[232] By 2017, the number of Filipinos who were in the United States illegally increased to 310,000.[233] Filipinos who reside in the United States illegally are known within the Filipino community as "TnT's" (tago nang tago 'hide and hide').[234]
Filipino Americans experience significant health disparities and are more likely to have diabetes, heart disease, high blood preasure and other issues.[235] Filipino Americans also experience food insecurity at a significantly higher rate then other Asian-American groups.[130] In Hawaii the rate of low food security and very low food security for Filipino people were 11.7% and 22.3%.[236][237][238]
Filipino Americans may be mistaken for members of other racial/ethnic groups, such asLatinos orPacific Islanders;[239] this may lead to "mistaken" discrimination that is notspecific to Asian Americans.[239] Filipino Americans, additionally, have had difficulty being categorized, termed by one source as being in "perpetual absence".[240]
In theperiod, prior to 1946, Filipinos weretaught that they were American, and presented with an idealized America.[225] They had official status asUnited States nationals.[241] When ill-treated and discriminated by other Americans, Filipinos were faced with theracism of that period, which undermined these ideals.[242]Carlos Bulosan later wrote about this experience inAmerica is in the Heart. Evenpensionados, who immigrated on government scholarships,[225] were treated poorly.[242]
In Hawaii, Filipino Americans often have little identification with their heritage,[243] and it has been documented that many disclaim their ethnicity.[244] This may be due to the "colonial mentality", or the idea that Western ideals and physical characteristics are superior to their own.[245] Although categorized as Asian Americans, Filipino Americans have not fully embraced being part of this racial category due to marginalization by other Asian-American groups and or the dominant American society.[246] This created a struggle within Filipino American communities over how far to assimilate.[247] The term "white-washed" has been applied to those seeking to further assimilate.[248] Those who disclaim their ethnicity lose the positive adjustment to outcomes that are found in those who have a strong, positive, ethnic identity.[245]
Of the ten largest immigrant groups, Filipino Americans have the highest rate ofassimilation,[249] with the exception ofcuisine.[250] Filipino Americans have been described as the most "Americanized" of the Asian-American ethnicities.[251] However, even though Filipino Americans are the second-largest group among Asian Americans, community activists have described the ethnicity as "invisible", claiming that the group is virtually unknown to the American public,[252] and is often not seen as significant even among its members.[253] Another term for this status isforgotten minority.[254]
This description has also been used in the political arena, given the lack ofpolitical mobilization.[255] In the mid-1990s it was estimated that some one hundred Filipino Americans have been elected or appointed to public office. This lack of political representation contributes to the perception that Filipino Americans are invisible.[256]
The concept is also used to describe how the ethnicity has assimilated.[257] Fewaffirmative action programs target the group although affirmative action programs rarely target Asian Americans in general.[258] Assimilation was easier given that the group is majority religiously Christian, fluent in English, and have high levels of education.[259] The concept was in greater use in the past, before the post-1965 wave of arrivals.[260]
The terminvisible minority has been used for Asian Americans as a whole,[261][262] and the term "model minority" has been applied to Filipinos as well as other Asian-American groups.[263] Filipino critics allege that Filipino Americans are ignored in immigration literature and studies.[264]
As with fellow Asian Americans, Filipino Americans are viewed as "perpetual foreigners", even for those born in the United States.[265] This has resulted in physical attacks on Filipino Americans, as well as non-violent forms of discrimination.[266]
In college and high school campuses, many Filipino-American student organizations put on annual Pilipino Culture Nights to showcase dances, perform skits, and comment on issues such as identity and lack of cultural awareness due to assimilation and colonization.[267]
Mental health is a topic that is seldom spoken about among the Filipino-American community because of the stigma that is attached to it.[269] In the documentary "Silent Sacrifices: Voices of the Filipino American Family" Patricia Heras points out that a lack of communication between first-generation and second-generation Filipino-American immigrants can lead to family members not understanding the personal hardships that each one goes through.[270] Some of the main topics of discussion in this documentary are depression andsuicide ideation experienced by the second-generation youth.[270] These topics are supported by a study that was conducted in 1997 by theFederal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that revealed that 45.6% of Filipina American teenage students in San Diego public schools had seriously thought about committing suicide. Half of those students had actually attempted suicide.[271] Although depression cannot be said to cause suicide, the high scores of depression and low self-esteem show a relation to the high scores of suicidal thoughts among Filipinos.[272]
Depression in Filipinos can sometimes be difficult to notice without digging deeper into their feelings. Filipinos can display their depression in many ways such as showing extreme suffering or smiling even when it may not seem authentic.[269] Some of the common causes of depression include: financial worries, family separation during the immigration process, andcultural conflict.[269] One of these cultural conflicts is the belief that one must base decisions on what will "save face" for the family.[273] A study was published in 2018 by Janet Chang and Frank Samson about Filipino American youth and their non-Filipino friends. They had found that Filipino American youth with three or more close non-Filipino friends were more likely to experience depression and anxiety more so than Filipino American youth with two or less non-Filipino friends that they considered to be close.[274] Although having friends of diverse backgrounds gave these Filipinos a sense of inclusion among their peers, they also gained a heightened awareness ofdiscrimination.[274]
The US government promised these soldiers all of the benefits afforded to other veterans.[279] However, in 1946, theUnited States Congress passed theRescission Act of 1946 which stripped Filipinoveterans of the promised benefits.[280] One estimate claims that monies due to these veterans for back pay and other benefits exceeds one billion dollars.[276] Of the sixty-six countries allied with the United States during the war, the Philippines is the only country that did not receive military benefits from the United States.[253] The phrase "Second Class Veterans" has been used to describe their status.[253][281]
Filipino-American World War II veterans at theWhite House in 2003
Many Filipino veterans traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for these benefits.[282] Since 1993, numerous bills have been introduced in Congress to pay the benefits, but all died in committee.[283] As recently as 2018, these bills have received bipartisan support.[284]
There was a proposed lawsuit to be filed in 2011 by The Justice for Filipino American Veterans against theDepartment of Veterans Affairs.[289]
In the late 1980s, efforts towards reinstating benefits first succeeded with the incorporation of Filipino veteran naturalization in theImmigration Act of 1990.[253] Over 30,000 such veterans had immigrated, with mostly American citizens, receiving benefits relating to their service.[290]
Similar language to those bills was inserted by the Senate into theAmerican Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009[291] which provided a one time payment of at least 9,000USD to eligible non-US Citizens and US$15,000 to eligible US Citizens via theFilipino Veterans Equity Compensation Fund.[292] These payments went to those recognized as soldiers or guerrillas or their spouses.[293] The list of eligibles is smaller than the list recognized by the Philippines.[294] Additionally, recipients had to waive all rights to possible future benefits.[295] As of March 2011, 42 percent (24,385) of claims had been rejected;[296] By 2017, more than 22,000 people received about $226 million in one time payments.[297]
In the 113th Congress, RepresentativeJoe Heck reintroduced his legislation to allow documents from the Philippine government and the US Army to be accepted as proof of eligibility.[298] Known as H.R. 481, it was referred to theCommittee on Veterans' Affairs.[299] In 2013, the US released a previously classified report detailing guerrilla activities, including guerrilla units not on the "Missouri list".[300]
In September 2012, theSocial Security Administration announced that non-resident Filipino World War II veterans were eligible for certainsocial security benefits; however an eligible veteran would lose those benefits if they visited for more than one month in a year, or immigrated.[301]
In the mid 19th to 20th century, Filipino men often dated and cohabited white women, some married white females while most married black females due to miscegenation laws. Filipino population in all over United States was made up overwhelmingly of men. For example, in California the Filipino population was 30,470 and in mainland leapt from 5,603 in 1920 to 45,208 ten years later.[307]
Some 250,000 to 400,000 Filipino soldiers served in the United States Military. Many Filipino soldiers were in cohabitations with white american females, but miscegenations laws prevented Filipinos from marrying white women. For example, the state of California refused to grant licenses for Filipino soldiers to marry what the state calls "white women". Chapain Noury said to the Chief of Chaplains said "It jus happens that there are very few filipina girls here and consequently they have to out with white girls. As I said there is great number of our Filipino soldiers are now living for several years with white girls and were never married..... and they have children."[308]
Congress establishedAsian Pacific American Heritage Month in May to commemorate Filipino American and other Asian American cultures. Upon becoming the largest Asian American group inCalifornia, October was established asFilipino American History Month to acknowledge the first landing of Filipinos on October 18, 1587 inMorro Bay, California. It is widely celebrated by Filipino Americans.[309][310]
Major & Regional Celebrations in the United States
^"Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths, Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. 19 July 2012.Archived from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved18 August 2014.Religious Affiliations Among U.S. Asian American Groups - Filipino: 89% Christian (21% Protestant (12% Evangelical, 9% Mainline), 65% Catholic, 3% Other Christian), 1% Buddhist, 0% Muslim, 0% Sikh, 0% Jain, 2% Other religion, 8% Unaffiliated[failed verification] "Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths".The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Pew Research Center. 19 July 2014.Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved15 March 2017.Filipino Americans: 89% All Christian (65% Catholic, 21% Protestant, 3% Other Christian), 8% Unaffiliated, 1%Islam
^Marina Claudio-Perez (October 1998)."Filipino Americans"(PDF).The California State Library. State of California. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 30 September 2011. Retrieved30 April 2011.Filipino Americans are often shortened intoPinoy Some Filipinos believe that the termPinoy was coined by the early Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines. Others claim that it implies "Filipino" thoughts, deeds and spirit.
^Loni Ding (2001)."Part 1. COOLIES, SAILORS AND SETTLERS".NAATA.PBS.Archived from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved20 August 2011.Most people think of Asians as recent immigrants to the Americas, but the first Asians—Filipino sailors—settled in the bayous of Louisiana a decade before the Revolutionary War.
^Loni Ding (2001)."Part 1. COOLIES, SAILORS AND SETTLERS".NAATA.PBS.Archived from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved19 May 2011.Some of the Filipinos who left their ships in Mexico ultimately found their way to the bayous of Louisiana, where they settled in the 1760s. The film shows the remains of Filipino shrimping villages in Louisiana, where, eight to ten generations later, their descendants still reside, making them the oldest continuous settlement of Asians in America. Loni Ding (2001)."1763 FILIPINOS IN LOUISIANA".NAATA.PBS.Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved19 May 2011.These are the "Louisiana Manila men" with presence recorded as early as 1763. Ohamura, Jonathan (1998).Imagining the Filipino American Diaspora: Transnational Relations, Identities, and Communities. Studies in Asian Americans Series. Taylor & Francis. p. 36.ISBN978-0-8153-3183-4.Archived from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved30 September 2012.
^ab"Filipino-Americans in the U.S." Filipino-American Community of South Puget Sound. 2018. Archived from the original on 4 February 2018. Retrieved16 April 2018.
^"Background Note: Philippines".Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs.United States Department of State. 31 January 2011.Archived from the original on 22 January 2017. Retrieved22 December 2014.There are an estimated four million Americans of Philippine ancestry in the United States, and more than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.
^Hugo Lopez, Mark; Manuel Krogstad, Jens; Passel, Jeffrey (23 September 2021)."Who is Hispanic?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved4 March 2022.People with ancestries in Brazil, Portugal and the Philippines do not fit the federal government's official definition of "Hispanic" because the countries are not Spanish-speaking. For the most part, people who trace their ancestry to these countries are not counted as Hispanic by the Census Bureau, usually because most do not identify as Hispanic when they fill out their census forms. Only about 2% of immigrants from Brazil do so, as do 1% of immigrants from Portugal and 1% from the Philippines, according to the 2019 American Community Survey. These patterns likely reflect a growing recognition and acceptance of the official definition of Hispanics. In the 1980 census, 18% of Brazilian immigrants and 12% of both Portuguese and Filipino immigrants identified as Hispanic. But by 2000, the shares identifying as Hispanic dropped to levels closer to those seen today.
^abFaustinos, Belinda; Hoyos, Luis; Castaneda, Antonia; de la Garza, Rudolfo O.; Negron-Muntanaer, Frances; Pitti, Stephen J.; Rael-Galvez, Estevan; Rast, Raymond; Rivas-Rodriquez, Maggie; Ruiz, Vicki; Sanchez-Korrol, Virginia."The National Park Service and American Latino Heritage".American Latino Heritage. United States Department of the Interior. Archived fromthe original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved18 February 2020.
^"Cultural Resource Regional EthnoHistory".Geothermal Leasing in the Western United States: Environmental Impact Statement. United States Department of the Interior. May 2008. pp. I–59–60.Archived from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved2020-02-19.
^Jeffrey S. Passel; Paul Taylor (29 May 2009)."Who's Hispanic?".Hispanic Trends. Pew Research Center.Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved15 March 2017.In the 1980 Census, about one in six Brazilian immigrants and one in eight Portuguese and Filipino immigrants identified as Hispanic. Similar shares did so in the 1990 Census, but by 2000, the shares identifying as Hispanic dropped to levels close to those seen today. Westbrook, Laura (2008)."Mabuhay Pilipino! (Long Life!): Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana".Louisiana Folklife Program. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism.Archived from the original on 18 May 2018. Retrieved16 March 2017.
^J. Nicole Stevens (30 June 1999)."The History of the Filipino Languages".Linguistics 450. Brigham Young University.Archived from the original on 2 May 2017. Retrieved16 March 2017.The Americans began English as the official language of the Philippines. There were many reasons given for this change. Spanish was still not known by very many of the native people. As well, when Taft's commission (which had been established to continue setting up the government in the Philippines) asked the native people what language they wanted, they asked for English (Frei, 33). Stephen A. Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. Tryon (1 January 1996).Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 272–273.ISBN978-3-11-081972-4.Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved17 March 2017.
^Ryan, Camille (August 2013).Language Use in the United States: 2011(PDF) (Report). United States Census Bureau. American Community Survey Reports. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 5 February 2016. Retrieved13 May 2018.
^Mark Gray; Mary Gautier; Thomas Gaunt (June 2014)."Cultural Diversity in the Catholic Church in the United States"(PDF). United States Conference of Catholic Bishops.Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved16 March 2017.Some 76 percent of Asian, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander Catholics are estimated to self-identify as Filipino (alone and in combinations with other identities).
^Gardner, F. (1906). The Journal of American Folklore: Philippine (Tagalog) Superstitions. American Folklore Society.
^Bautista, A. V. (2014). Filipino American Culture and Traditions: An Exploratory Study. California State University.
^Chen, Thomas (26 February 2009)."WHY ASIAN AMERICANS VOTED FOR OBAMA". Perspective. Archived fromthe original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved4 March 2013.A survey of Filipino Americans in California—the second largest Asian American ethnic group and traditionally Republican voters
^Mercado, Gus (November 10, 2008)."Obama wins Filipino vote at last-hour".Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived fromthe original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved22 October 2012.A pre-election survey of 840 active Filipino community leaders in America showed a strong shift of undecided registered voters towards the Obama camp in the last several weeks before the elections that gave Senator Barack Obama of Illinois a decisive 58–42 share of the Filipino vote.
^abLetargo, Mico (19 October 2012)."Fil-Ams lean towards Romney – survey".Asian Journal.Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved22 October 2012.In 2008, 50 percent of the Filipino community voted for President Barack Obama (the Democrat candidate back then) while 46 percent voted for Republican Senator John McCain.
^Edmund M. Silvestre (18 January 2009)."A Fil-Am on Capitol Hill".The Philippine Star. Retrieved29 April 2011.There are now three members of U.S. Congress with Filipino lineage: Rep. Robert "Bobby" Scott, an African-American representing Virginia's 3rd congressional district; and Sen. John Ensign of Nevada. Maxwell, Rahasaan (5 March 2012).Ethnic Minority Migrants in Britain and France: Integration Trade-Offs. Cambridge University Press. p. 206.ISBN978-1-107-37803-2.Archived from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved30 January 2019.These numbers include politicians with only the slightest connection to the Philippines. For example, Bobby Scott of Virginia is commonly considered anAfrican American and his only connection to the Philippines is one maternal grandmother. John Ensign of Nevada only has one Filipino great-grandparent.
^Bautista, Amanda Vinluan (May 2014).Filipino American Culture And Traditions: An Exploratory Study(PDF) (Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Social Work). California State University, Stanislaus.Archived(PDF) from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved16 March 2017.
^Carlo Osi (26 March 2009)."Filipino cuisine on US television".Mind Feeds. Inquirer Company. Archived fromthe original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved31 July 2012.In the United States, the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultural groups often bond for organizational purposes, while Filipinos in general have not. Ethnically Filipino Americans are divided intoPampangeno,Ilocano,Cebuano,Tagalog, and so forth.
^Katrina Stuart Santiago (8 June 2011)."Balut as Pinoy pride".GMA.Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved2 July 2011.The balut is one claim to fame we're uncertain about, seeing as it is equated with hissing cockroaches on Fear Factor. Talk about bringing us back to the dark ages of being the exotic and barbaric brown siblings of America.
^Keli Dailey (9 February 2012)."Andrew Zimmern's eating through San Diego".The San Diego Union Tribune.Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved11 February 2013."Tita's sisig, best I have ever tasted . San Diego Philippine (sic) food is crazy good," he tweeted.
^Alejandro, Reynaldo (1985).The Philippine cookbook. New York, New York: Penguin. pp. 12–14.ISBN978-0-399-51144-8. RetrievedJune 30, 2011. Civitello, Linda (2011).Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People. John Wiley and Sons. p. 263.ISBN978-1-118-09875-2. RetrievedJune 30, 2011.Just as Filipino people are part Malay, Chinese and Spanish, so is the cuisine of their seven-thousand-island nation Philippines Country Study Guide. Int'l Business Publications. 2007. p. 111.ISBN978-1-4330-3970-6. RetrievedJune 30, 2011.Throughout the centuries, the islands have incorporated the cuisine of the early Malay settlers, Arab and Chinese traders, and Spanish and American colonizers along with other Oriental and Occidental accent and flavours.[permanent dead link] Morgolis, Jason (February 6, 2014)."Why is it so hard to find a good Filipino restaurant?".Public Radio International. RetrievedDecember 17, 2014.Philippine food has Chinese, Malaysian, Spanish and American influences—all cultures that have shaped the Philippines.
^Melanie Henson Narciso (2005).Filipino Meal Patterns in the United States of America(PDF) (Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Master of Science Degree). University of Wisconsin-Stout.Archived(PDF) from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved13 September 2012.
^abcdKuroki, Yusuke (2015). "Risk Factors for Suicidal Behaviors Among Filipino Americans: A Data Mining Approach".American Journal of Orthopsychiatry.85 (1):34–42.doi:10.1037/ort0000018.PMID25110976.
^Mendoza, S. Lily; Perkinson, Jim (2003). "Filipino "Kapwa" in Global Dialogue: A Different Politics of Being-With the "Other"".Intercultural Communication Studies.12:177–194.
^Nadal, Kevin (2011).Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
^"Batas Pambansa Bilang. 185".Chanrobles Virtual law Library. March 16, 1982.Archived from the original on 2008-12-27. Retrieved2008-06-02. (Section 2) "Republic Act No. 8179".Supreme Court E-Library. March 28, 1996. Archived fromthe original on December 27, 2008. Retrieved2008-06-02. (Section 5)
^Nelson, Shane (2008)."Personal Best".Honolulu Magazine.Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved5 July 2012.
^"Balikbayan Program". Consulate General of the Philippines in Los Angeles. Archived fromthe original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved5 July 2012.
^abc"Introduction: Filipino Settlements in the United States"(PDF). Temple University Press. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 28 November 2014. Retrieved27 April 2011.Since 1979, over 40,000 Filipinos have been admitted annually, making the Philippines the second largest source of all immigration, surpassed only by Mexico.
^Guerrero, AP; Nishimura, ST; Chang, JY; Ona, C; Cunanan, VL; Hishinuma, ES (2010). "Low cultural identification, low parental involvement and adverse peer influences as risk factors for delinquent behaviour among Filipino youth in Hawai'i".International Journal of Social Psychiatry.56 (4):371–387.doi:10.1177/0020764009102772.PMID19617281.S2CID40241211.
^Scattergood, Amy (25 February 2010)."Off the menu".Los Angeles Times. Archived fromthe original on 22 December 2011. Retrieved30 May 2011.That Filipino food has, by and large, not been assimilated into mainstream American cuisine is ironic, given how adept Filipinos historically have been at assimilating into other dominant cultures (the country is Catholic; English is the second official language), and given how assimilated the myriad cuisines have been within the country itself.
^Whitney, Philip B. (July–September 1972). "Forgotten Minority: Filipinos in the United States".Bulletin of Bibliography and Magazine Notes (3):73–83. Cathy J. Schlund-Vials; K. Scott Wong; Jason Oliver Chang (10 January 2017).Asian America: A Primary Source Reader. Yale University Press. p. 239.ISBN978-0-300-22519-8.Archived from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved17 July 2018. Lon Kurashige; Alice Yang (6 July 2015).Major Problems in Asian American History. Cengage Learning. p. 338.ISBN978-1-305-85560-1.Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved17 July 2018.
^Keith Rogers (21 January 2013)."100-year-old Filipino-American veteran dies".Las Vegas Review-Journal.Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved26 January 2013.About 10,000 live in the United States and 14,000 are in the Philippines.
^Federis, Marnette (4 August 2006)."The Forgotten Veterans".Voice of San Diego.Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved5 September 2019.
^Maze, Rick (2008-01-29)."Senate puts Filipino vet pensions in stimulus"(News Article).Army Times. Army Times Publishing Company.Buried inside the Senate bill, which includes tax cuts and new spending initiatives intended to create jobs in the U.S., the Filipino payment was inserted at the urging of Sen. Daniel Inouye, D-Hawaii, the new chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee and a longtime supporter of monthly pensions for World War II Filipino veterans.
^Joseph G. Lariosa (9 January 2011)."Filipino Veterans Fairness bill filed at US Congress".GMA News. Archived fromthe original on January 24, 2013. Retrieved30 September 2012.The bill likewise proposes to invalidate the "quit claim" or the waiver of the right of Filipino veterans to receive future benefits, like a lifetime monthly pension, as provided for in the Filipino Veterans Equity Compensation (FVEC) of the $787-billion American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA).
^"history". Asian Pacific heritage.Archived from the original on 2006-07-21. Retrieved2006-08-28.
^"Filipino Apostolate"(PDF). Our Lady of Hope Catholic Church, Archdiocese of Philadelphia. 2011. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on August 23, 2011. Retrieved8 June 2011.
^"PhilFest 2011". Philippine Cultural Foundation, Inc.Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved8 June 2011.
^Tiffany Hill (19 May 2011)."Field Guide: Filipino Fun".Honolulu Magazine. Aio.Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved8 June 2011. Paul Raymund Cortes (3 June 2011)."19 Annual Filipino Fiesta". Philippine Consulate General Honolulu.Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved8 June 2011.
^"Filipino-American Association of Philadelphia, Inc". Filipino-American Association of Philadelphia, Inc. 2011.Archived from the original on 4 July 2011. Retrieved19 June 2011.FAAPI also continues to hold the annual Mother of the Year celebration (started in 1950s) to honor motherhood on Mothers Day in May.
^"FilAmArts". The Association for the Advancement of Filipino American Arts and Culture.Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved8 June 2011.
^"Christmas: A National Fiesta". Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University.Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved8 June 2011.
Bankston III, Carl L. (2005)."Filipino Americans". In Min, Pyong Gap (ed.).Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues. Pine Forge Press. pp. 180–202, 368.ISBN978-1-4129-0556-5.Archived from the original on 2011-05-09. Retrieved2015-10-16.
Melendy, H. Brett. "Filipino Americans".Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2014), pp. 119–135.online
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