Thefig is the edible fruit ofFicus carica, a species of small shrub in theflowering plant familyMoraceae,native to theMediterranean region, together with western and southern Asia. It has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world.[3][4]Ficus carica is thetype species of the genusFicus, which comprises over 800 tropical and subtropical plant species.
A fig plant is a smalldeciduous tree or large shrub growing up to 7–10 m (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth white bark. Its large leaves have three to five deeplobes. Its fruit (referred to assyconium, a type ofmultiple fruit) is tear-shaped, 3–5 cm (1–2 in) long, with a green skin that may ripen toward purple or brown, and sweet soft reddish flesh containing numerous crunchy seeds. The milkysap of the green parts is anirritant to human skin. In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from late summer to early autumn. They tolerate moderate seasonal frost and can be grown even in hot-summer continental climates.
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, or processed into jam, rolls, biscuits and other types of desserts. Since ripe fruit does not transport and keep well, most commercial production is in dried and processed forms. Raw figs contain roughly 80% water and 20%carbohydrates, with negligible protein, fat and micronutrient content. They are a moderate source ofdietary fiber.
In 2018, world production of raw figs was 1.14 milliontonnes, led byTurkey and North African countries (Egypt,Morocco, andAlgeria) as the largest producers, collectively accounting for 64% of the total.[5]
The wordfig, first recorded in English in the 13th century, derives from (Old) Frenchfigue, itself from Occitan (Provençal)figa, from Romance*fica, fromClassical Latinficus (fig or fig-tree).[6] Italian hasfico, directly derived from Latinficus. The name of thecaprifig,Ficus caprificus Risso, is derived both from Latincaper, genitivecapri (he-goat) and Englishfig.[7]
Ficus carica is agynodioecious,deciduoustree or largeshrub that grows up to 7–10 m (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth whitebark. Its fragrant leaves are 12–25 cm (4+1⁄2–10 in) long and 10–18 cm (4–7 in) wide, and are deeply lobed (three or five lobes).
The fig fruit develops as a hollow, fleshy structure called thesyconium that is lined internally with numerousunisexual flowers. The tiny flowers bloom inside this cup-like structure. Although commonly called a fruit, the syconium is botanically aninfructescence, a type ofmultiple fruit. The small fig flowers and later small single-seeded (true) fruits line its interior surface. A small opening orostiole, visible on the middle of the fruit, is a narrow passage that allows thespecialized fig wasp,Blastophaga psenes, to enter the inflorescence and pollinate the flowers, after which each fertilizedovule (one per flower, in itsovary) develops into a seed. At maturity, these 'seeds' (actually single-seeded fruits) line the inside of each fig.
The edible mature syconium develops into a fleshyfalse fruit bearing the numerous one-seeded fruits, which are technicallydrupelets.[8] The whole fig fruit is 3–5 cm (1–2 in) long, with a green skin that sometimes ripens toward purple or brown.Ficus carica has milky sap, produced bylaticifer cells. Thesap of the green parts is anirritant to human skin.[9]
The common fig tree has been cultivated since ancient times and grows wild in dry and sunny locations with deep and fresh soil, and in rocky locations that are at sea level to 1,700 metres in elevation. It prefers relatively porous and freely draining soil, and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Unlike other fig species,Ficus carica does not always require pollination by a wasp or from another tree,[10][11] but can be pollinated by thefig wasp,Blastophaga psenes to produce seeds. Fig wasps are not present to pollinate in colder regions such as the British Isles.[12]
The species has become naturalized in scattered locations in Asia and North America.[13][14]
BudLeaves and immature fruitFigs in various stages of ripening
The plant tolerates seasonal drought, and the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates are especially suitable to it. Situated in a favorable habitat, mature specimens can grow to considerable size as large, dense, shade trees. Its aggressive root system precludes its cultivation in many urban locations, yet in nature this characteristic helps the plant to root in the most inhospitable locations. Having a great need of water, it is mostly aphreatophyte that extracts the needed water from sources in or on the ground. Consequently, it frequently grows in locations with standing or running water, e. g. in valleys of rivers and in ravines that collect water. The deeply rooted plant searches for groundwater inaquifers,ravines, or cracks in rocks. With access to this water, the tree cools the hot environments in which it grows, thus producing fresh and pleasant habitat for many animals that shelter in its shade during periods of intense heat.[citation needed]
The mountain or rock fig (Persian:انجیر کوهی,romanized: anjīr kuhi) is a wild variety, tolerant of cold dry climates, of the semi-arid rocky montane regions of Iran, especially in the Kūhestān mountains ofKhorasan.[9]
Ficus carica is dispersed by birds and mammals that scatter their seeds in droppings. Fig fruit is an important food source for much of the fauna in some areas, and the tree owes its expansion to those that feed on its fruit. The common fig tree also sprouts from the root and stolon tissues.[citation needed]
The edible fig is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans. Ninesubfossil figs of aparthenocarpic (and therefore sterile) type dating to about 9400–9200 BC were found in the earlyNeolithic villageGilgal I (in theJordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). The find precedes the domestication ofwheat,barley, andlegumes, and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture. It is proposed that this sterile but desirable type was planted and cultivated intentionally, one thousand years before the next crops were domesticated (wheat andrye).[15][16][17] In ancientPalestine,fig-cakes were often produced from selected ripe figs.[18]
Figs were widespread inancient Greece, and their cultivation was described by bothAristotle andTheophrastus. Aristotle noted that as in animal sexes, figs have individuals of two kinds, one (the cultivated fig) that bears fruit, and one (the wild caprifig) that assists the other to bear fruit. Further, Aristotle recorded that the fruits of the wild fig containpsenes (fig wasps); these begin life as larvae, and the adultpsen splits its "skin" (pupa) and flies out of the fig to find and enter a cultivated fig, saving it from dropping. Theophrastus observed that just asdate palms have male and female flowers, and that farmers (from the East) help by scattering "dust" from the male onto the female, and as a male fish releases his milt over the female's eggs, so Greek farmers tie wild figs to cultivated trees. They do not say directly that figs reproduce sexually, however.[19]
Figs were also a common food source for theRomans.Cato the Elder, in hisc. 160 BCDe Agri Cultura, lists several strains of figs grown at the time he wrote his handbook: the Mariscan, African, Herculanean, Saguntine, and the black Tellanian.[20] The fruits were used, among other things, to fatten geese for the production of a precursor offoie gras. Rome's firstemperor,Augustus, was reputed to have been poisoned with figs from his garden smeared with poison by his wifeLivia.[21][22] For this reason, or perhaps because of her horticultural expertise, a variety of fig known as theLiviana was cultivated in Roman gardens.[23]
In 1769, Spanish missionaries led byJunipero Serra brought the first figs to California. TheMission variety, which they cultivated, is still popular.[24] The fact that it isparthenocarpic (self-pollinating) made it an ideal cultivar for introduction.[citation needed]
The Kadotacultivar is even older, being mentioned by the Roman naturalistPliny the Elder in the 1st century AD.[25] Pliny recorded thirty varieties of figs.[26]
The name Kadota name did not exist in the era of Pliny the Elder nor is it mentioned in Pliny's works. Also only 29 figs were recorded in his work; Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, English translation by John Bostock and H.T. Riley, Book XV, CHAP. 19. (18.)—TWENTY-NINE VARIETIES OF THE FIG.
The Kadota name was created in the early 20th century in California, US, to name a "sport" or genetic deviation from a Dotatto fig tree as documented in The Kadota Fig: A Treatise On Its Origin, Planting And Care by W. Sam Clark.
Figs are also grown inGermany, mainly in private gardens inside built up areas. There is no commercial fig growing.[30] ThePalatine region in the German South West has an estimated 80,000 fig trees. The variety Brown Turkey is the most widespread in the region.[31] There are about a dozen quite widespread varieties hardy enough to survive winter outdoors mostly without special protection. There are even two local varieties, "Martinsfeige" and "Lussheim", which may be the hardiest varieties in the region.[32]
As the population ofCalifornia grew, especially after thegold rush, a number of other cultivars were brought there by persons and nurserymen from the east coast of the US and from France and England. By the end of the 19th century, it became apparent that California had the potential for being an ideal fig producing state because of its Mediterranean-like climate and latitude of 38 degrees, lining upSan Francisco withİzmir, Turkey. G. P. Rixford first brought true Smyrna figs to California in 1880. The most popular cultivar of Smyrna-type fig isCalimyrna, being a name that combines "California" and "Smyrna". The cultivar, however, is not one that was produced by a breeding program, and instead is from one of the cuttings brought to California in the latter part of the 19th century. It is identical to the cultivarLob Injir that has been grown in Turkey for centuries.[25]
Figs can be found incontinental climates with hot summers as far north asHungary andMoravia. Thousands of cultivars, most named, have been developed as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. Fig plants can bepropagated by seed or byvegetative methods. Vegetative propagation is quicker and more reliable, as it does not yield the inedible caprifigs. Seeds germinate readily in moist conditions and grow rapidly once established. For vegetative propagation, shoots with buds can be planted in well-watered soil in the spring or summer, or a branch can be scratched to expose the bast (inner bark) and pinned to the ground to allow roots to develop.[33]
Two crops of figs can be produced each year.[34] The first orbreba crop develops in the spring on last year's shoot growth. The main fig crop develops on the current year's shoot growth and ripens in the late summer or fall. The main crop is generally superior in quantity and quality, but some cultivars such as 'Black Mission', 'Croisic', and 'Ventura' produce good breba crops.[citation needed]
Persistent (or common) figs have all female flowers that do not need pollination for fruiting; the fruit can develop throughparthenocarpic means. This is a popular horticulture fig for home gardeners. Dottato (Kadota), Black Mission, Brown Turkey, Brunswick, and Celeste are some representative cultivars.
Caducous (or Smyrna) figs require cross pollination by thefig wasp with pollen fromcaprifigs for the fruit to mature. If not pollinated the immature fruits drop. Some cultivars are Marabout, Inchàrio, and Zidi.
Intermediate (or San Pedro) figs set an unpollinated breba crop but need pollination for the later main crop. Examples are Lampeira, King, and San Pedro.
There are dozens of fig cultivars, including main and breba cropping varieties, and an edible caprifig (the Croisic). Varieties are often local, found in a single region of one country.[34][36]
People of theItalian diaspora who live in cold-winter climates have the practice of burying imported fig trees to overwinter them and protect the fruiting hard wood from cold.[37] Italian immigrants to America in the 19th century introduced this common practice in cities such asNew York,Philadelphia,Boston, andToronto, where winters are normally too cold to leave the tree exposed.[38] This practice consists in digging a trench that is appropriate to the size of the specimen, some of which are more than 10 feet (3.0 m) tall, severing part of the root system, and bending the specimen into the trench. Specimens are often wrapped in waterproof material to discourage development ofmould andfungus, then covered with a heavy layer of soil and leaves. Sometimesplywood orcorrugated metal is placed on top to secure the tree.[39] In borderline climates like New York City burying trees is no longer needed because low winter temperatures have increased. Often specimens are simply wrapped in plastic and other insulating material, or not protected if planted in a sheltered site against a wall that absorbs sunlight.[38]
While the fig contains more naturally occurring varieties than any other tree crop, a formal breeding program was not developed until the beginning of the 20th century.[40] Ira Condit, "High Priest of the Fig", and William Storey tested some thousands of fig seedlings in the early 20th century based atUniversity of California, Riverside.[36] It was then continued at theUniversity of California, Davis. However, the fig breeding program was ultimately closed in the 1980s.[40]
Due to insect and fungal disease pressure in both dried and fresh figs, the breeding program was revived in 1989 by James Doyle and Louise Ferguson using thegermplasm established at UC Riverside by Ira Condit and William Storey. Crosses were made and two new varieties are now in production in California: the public variety "Sierra", and the patented variety "Sequoia".[41]
In 2020, world production of raw figs was 1.26 million tonnes, led byTurkey (with 25% of the world total),Egypt,Morocco, andAlgeria as the largest producers, collectively accounting for 62% of the total.[5]
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and used injam-making. Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well. The widely producedfig roll ("Fig Newton" is a trademark of Nabisco) is a biscuit (or cookie) with a filling made from figs.
In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from August through to early October. Fresh figs used in cooking should be plump and soft, and without bruising or splits. If they smell sour, the figs have become over-ripe. Slightly under-ripe figs can be kept at room temperature for 1–2 days to ripen before serving. Figs are most flavorful at room temperature.[42]
Freshly harvested figs underwent two distinct drying methods for preservation. The first method was natural sun-drying, where the figs were exposed to the warmth and light of the sun. The second method involved oven-drying, where the figs were placed in a controlled temperature environment within an oven.[43] Each process has its unique impact on the texture and flavor profile of the dried figs.[43]
Raw figs are 79% water, 19%carbohydrates, 1%protein, and contain negligiblefat (table). They are a moderate source (14% of theDaily Value, DV) ofdietary fiber and 310 kilojoules (74 kcal) offood energy per 100-gram serving, and do not supply essentialmicronutrients in significant contents (table).
Whendehydrated to 30% water, figs have a carbohydrate content of 64%, protein content of 3%, and fat content of 1%.[46] In a 100-gram serving, providing 1,041 kJ (249 kcal) of food energy,dried figs are a rich source (more than 20% DV) of dietary fiber and theessential mineralmanganese (26% DV), whilecalcium,iron,magnesium,potassium, andvitamin K are in moderate amounts.[46]
In fig fruits, the levels of glucose and fructose are nearly identical, with glucose being slightly more prevalent overall, while the presence of sucrose is minimal.[47][48][49] Still, in some varieties of figs, the fructose content can occasionally slightly surpass that of glucose.[47]
Figs offer several health benefits, making them a nutritious addition to a balanced diet:
Digestive Health: Figs are a significant source of dietary fiber, which facilitates gastrointestinal motility, thereby aiding in the prevention of constipation and promoting regular bowel movements. Furthermore, figs contain prebiotics that contribute to the maintenance of a balanced gut microbiota by supporting the proliferation of beneficial intestinal bacteria, which play a crucial role in overall digestive health.[50]
Cardiovascular Health: The high potassium content in figs is associated with the regulation of blood pressure by mitigating the hypertensive effects of excessive sodium intake. Additionally, the presence of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties in figs may contribute to vascular health by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are implicated in cardiovascular diseases.[51]
Skeletal Health: Figs provide essential micronutrients such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium, all of which are integral to maintaining bone mineral density. Regular consumption of these minerals has been linked to a reduced risk of osteoporosis and other degenerative bone conditions, particularly in aging populations.[51]
Antioxidant Activity: Figs contain a diverse array of antioxidants, including phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and carotenoids, which have been shown to neutralize free radicals. This antioxidative function is essential in reducing oxidative stress, which is a contributing factor to various chronic diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.[50]
Glycemic Regulation: Some studies suggest that figs may influence glycemic control due to their fiber content, which modulates glucose absorption and insulin response. However, caution is advised for individuals with diabetes, as dried figs have a higher sugar concentration, necessitating moderated consumption.[50]
Like other plant species in the familyMoraceae, contact with the milky sap ofFicus carica followed by exposure toultraviolet light can causephytophotodermatitis,[56][57] a potentially serious skin inflammation. Although the plant is not poisonous per se,F. carica is listed in the FDA Database of Poisonous Plants.[58]
Organic chemical compounds calledfuranocoumarins are known to cause phytophotodermatitis in humans.[59] The common fig contains significant quantities of two furanocoumarins,psoralen andbergapten.[60] The essential oil of fig leaves contains more than 10% psoralen, the highest concentration of any organic compound isolated from fig leaves.[61] Psoralen appears to be the primary furanocoumarin compound responsible for fig leaf-induced phytophotodermatitis.[citation needed]
Psoralen and bergapten are found chiefly in the milky sap of the leaves and shoots ofF. carica but not the fruits.[60] Neither psoralen nor bergapten were detected in the essential oil of fig fruits.[61] Thus there is no conclusive evidence that fig fruits cause phytophotodermatitis.[citation needed]
BabylonianIshtar for example took the form of the divine fig tree Xikum, the "primeval mother at the central place of the earth", protectress of the saviourTammuz. Moreover, figs and the fig tree were closely linked with female sexuality. According toBarbara Walker's encyclopedia on Goddess symbols, "This may account for the common use of the fig tree as a symbol of man's enlightenment, which was formerly supposed to come through his connection with the female principle."[62]
Gautama Buddha attainedenlightenment (bodhi) after meditating underneath aFicus religiosa, known as thebodhi tree, for seven weeks (49 days) around 500 BCE. The site of enlightenment is in present-dayBodh Gaya and its bodhi tree has been replaced several times.[63]
In the BiblicalBook of Genesis,Adam and Eve clad themselves withfig leaves (Genesis 3:7) after eating theforbidden fruit from thetree of the knowledge of good and evil. Likewise, fig leaves, or depictions of fig leaves, have long been used to cover thegenitals of nude figures in painting and sculpture, for example inMasaccio'sThe Expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Moreover, according to one opinion in the Talmud and the Jewish Biblical commentary, the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden could have been a fig.[64] There is also a Christian tradition that the Tree of Knowledge was the same fig tree Christ withers in the Gospels.[65]
TheBook of Deuteronomy specifies the fig as one of theSeven Species (Deuteronomy 8:7–8), describing the fertility of the land ofCanaan. This is a set of seven plants indigenous to the Middle East that together can provide food all year round. The list is organized by date of harvest, with the fig being fourth due to its main crop ripening during summer.[citation needed]
The biblical quote "each man under his own vine and fig tree" (Micah 4:4) has been used to denote peace and prosperity. It was commonly quoted to refer to the life that would be led by settlers in theAmerican West,[66] and was used byTheodor Herzl in his depiction of the futureJewish Homeland: "We are a commonwealth. In form it is new, but in purpose very ancient. Our aim is mentioned in the First Book of Kings: 'Judah and Israel shall dwell securely, each man under his own vine and fig tree, from Dan to Beersheba".[67] United States PresidentGeorge Washington, writing in 1790 to theTouro Synagogue ofNewport, Rhode Island, extended the metaphor to denote the equality of all Americans regardless of faith.[68]
^1771 illustration from Trew, C.J.,Plantae selectae quarum imagines ad exemplaria naturalia Londini, in hortis curiosorum nutrit, vol. 8: t. 73 (1771), drawing by G.D. Ehret
^ab"Fig,Ficus carica". Purdue University: Horticulture & Landscape Architecture.Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. RetrievedDecember 6, 2014.
^Marcus Porcius Cato (1933).Cato, the Censor, on Farming. Translated by Brehaut E.Columbia University Press. p. 19.VIII. As for figs, plant the marisca fig on clayey, open ground. Plant the African variety and the Herculanean, the Saguntine, the winter fig, and the black, long-stemmed Tellane fig on richer or well-manured soil.
^Roeding, George C. (1903)The Smyrna Fig: At Home and Abroad; published by the author, Fresno, CA, USA
^abStorey, W.B, Enderud, J.E., Saleeb, W.F., & Mauer, E.M. (1977)The Fig, Ficus carica Linnaeus: Its Biology, History, Culture, and Utilization, Vol. 13 #2,3,4;Jurupa Mountains Cultural Center, Riverside, CA, USA
^Lyle KL (2010) [2004].The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, CN:FalconGuides. p. 96.ISBN978-1-59921-887-8.OCLC560560606.
^"AGM Plants – Ornamental"(PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 39.Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 January 2018. Retrieved27 February 2018.
^abJanick, Jules & Moore, James (editors) (1975)Advances in Fruit Breeding; pgs 568–588:Figs, by Storey, W.B.; Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, IN, USA
^abVan Deynze, Allen (editor) (2008)100 years of breeding: UC Davis Plant Breeding Program. Published by the Dean's Office, Department of Plant Sciences, & Seed Biotechnology Center, Davis, CA, USA
^Veberic R, Colaric M, Stampar F (2008). "Phenolic acids and flavonoids of fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) in the northern Mediterranean region".Food Chemistry.106 (1):153–157.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.061.
^Solomon A, Golubowicz S, Yablowicz Z, Grossman S, Bergman M, Gottlieb HE, Altman A, Kerem Z, Flaishman MA (2006). "Antioxidant activities and anthocyanin content of fresh fruits of common fig (Ficus carica L.)".J Agric Food Chem.54 (20):7717–7723.doi:10.1021/jf060497h.PMID17002444.
^Landranco G (2001).Mediċina popolari ta' l-imgħoddi fil-gżejjer Maltin [Popular medicine of the past in the Maltese islands] (in Maltese). Valletta, Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin.ISBN99909-75-97-3.
^A review of the early Miocene Mastixioid flora of the Kristina Mine at Hrádek nad Nisou in North Bohemia, The Czech Republic, January 2012 by F. Holý, Z. Kvaček and Vasilis Teodoridis – ACTA MUSEI NATIONALIS PRAGAE Series B – Historia Naturalis • vol. 68 • 2012 • no. 3–4 • pp. 53–118
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