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Atatmospheric pressure, threeallotropic forms ofiron exist, depending on temperature:alpha iron (α-Fe, ferrite),gamma iron (γ-Fe, austenite), and delta iron (δ-Fe, similar to alpha iron). At very high pressure, a fourth form exists,epsilon iron (ε-Fe, hexaferrum). Some controversial experimental evidence suggests the existence of a fifth high-pressure form that is stable at very high pressures and temperatures.[1]
The phases of iron at atmospheric pressure are important because of the differences in solubility ofcarbon, forming different types ofsteel. The high-pressure phases of iron are important as models for the solid parts of planetary cores. Theinner core of theEarth is generally assumed to consist essentially of a crystalline iron-nickelalloy with ε structure.[2][3][4] The outer core surrounding the solid inner core is believed to be composed of liquid iron mixed withnickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.
Below 912 °C (1,674 °F), iron has abody-centered cubic (bcc)crystal structure and is known as α-iron orferrite. It isthermodynamically stable and a fairly soft metal. α-Fe can be subjected to pressures up to ca. 15 GPa before transforming into a high-pressure form termed ε-Fe discussed below.
Magnetically, α-iron isparamagnetic at high temperatures. However, below itsCurie temperature (TC orA2) of 771 °C (1044K or 1420 °F),[5] it becomesferromagnetic. In the past, the paramagnetic form of α-iron was known asbeta iron (β-Fe).[6][7] Even though the slight tetragonal distortion in the ferromagnetic state does constitute a true phase transition, the continuous nature of this transition results in only minor importance in steelheat treating. The A2 line forms the boundary between the beta iron and alpha fields in thephase diagram in Figure 1.
Similarly, the A2 boundary is of only minor importance compared to the A1 (eutectoid), A3 and Acm critical temperatures. The Acm, whereaustenite is in equilibrium withcementite + γ-Fe, is beyond the right edge in Fig. 1. The α + γ phase field is, technically, the β + γ field above the A2. The beta designation maintains continuity of the Greek-letter progression of phases in iron and steel: α-Fe, β-Fe,austenite (γ-Fe), high-temperature δ-Fe, and high-pressurehexaferrum (ε-Fe).
The primaryphase of low-carbon ormild steel and mostcast irons at room temperature isferromagnetic α-Fe.[8][9] It has a hardness of approximately 80Brinell.[10][11] The maximumsolubility of carbon is about 0.02 wt% at 727 °C (1,341 °F) and 0.001% at 0 °C (32 °F).[12] When it dissolves in iron, carbon atoms occupy interstitial "holes". Being about twice the diameter of thetetrahedral hole, the carbon introduces a strong local strain field.
Mild steel (carbon steel with up to about 0.2 wt% C) consists mostly of α-Fe and increasing amounts ofcementite (Fe3C, an iron carbide). The mixture adopts a lamellar structure calledpearlite. Sincebainite and pearlite each contain α-Fe as a component, any iron-carbon alloy will contain some amount of α-Fe if it is allowed to reachequilibrium at room temperature. The amount of α-Fe depends on the cooling process.
β-Fe and the A2 critical temperature are important ininduction heating of steel, such as for surface-hardening heat treatments. Steel is typically austenitized at 900–1000 °C before it isquenched andtempered. The high-frequency alternating magnetic field of induction heating heats the steel by two mechanisms below the Curie temperature: resistance orJoule heating and ferromagnetichysteresis losses. Above the A2 boundary, the hysteresis mechanism disappears and the required amount of energy per degree of temperature increase is thus substantially larger than below A2. Load-matching circuits may be needed to vary theimpedance in the induction power source to compensate for the change.[13]
When heating iron above 912 °C (1,674 °F), itscrystal structure changes to aface-centered cubic (fcc) crystalline structure. In this form it is called gamma iron (γ-Fe) oraustenite. γ-iron can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1,146 °C). This γ form of carbon saturation is exhibited inaustenitic stainless steel.
Peculiarly, above 1,394 °C (2,541 °F), iron changes back into the bcc structure, known as δ-Fe.[14] δ-iron can dissolve as much as 0.08% of carbon by mass at 1,475 °C. It is stable up to its melting point of 1,538 °C (2,800 °F). δ-Fe cannot exist above 5.2 GPa, with austenite instead transitioning directly to a molten phase at these high pressures.[15]
At pressures above approximately 10–13 GPa and temperatures up to around 700 K, α-iron changes into ahexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron or hexaferrum;[16] the higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but generally requires far higher pressures as temperature increases. Thetriple point of hexaferrum, ferrite, and austenite is 10.5 GPa at 750 K.[15]Antiferromagnetism in alloys of epsilon-Fe with Mn, Os and Ru has been observed.[17]
An alternate stable form, if it exists, may appear at pressures of at least 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1,500 K; it has been thought to have anorthorhombic or a double hcp structure.[1] As of December 2011[update], recent and ongoing experiments are being conducted on high-pressure andsuperdense carbon allotropes.
The melting point of iron is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa.
For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) put the γ-ε-liquidtriple point at pressures that differ by tens of gigapascals and 1000 K in the melting point. Generally speaking,molecular dynamics computer simulations of iron melting and shock wave experiments suggest higher melting points and a much steeper slope of the melting curve than static experiments carried out indiamond anvil cells.[18]
The melting and boiling points of iron, along with itsenthalpy of atomization, are lower than those of the earlier group 3d elements fromscandium tochromium, showing the lessened contribution of the3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by thenucleus;[19] however, they are higher than the values for the previous elementmanganese because that element has a half-filled 3d subshell and consequently its d-electrons are not easilydelocalized. This same trend appears forruthenium but notosmium.[20]
The exact temperatures at which iron will transition from one crystal structure to another depends on how much and what type of other elements are dissolved in the iron. The phase boundary between the different solid phases is drawn on abinary phase diagram, usually plotted as temperature versus percent iron. Adding some elements, such asChromium, narrows the temperature range for the gamma phase, while others increase the temperature range of the gamma phase. In elements that reduce the gamma phase range, the alpha-gamma phase boundary connects with the gamma-delta phase boundary, forming what is usually called theGamma loop. Adding Gamma loop additives keeps the iron in a body-centered cubic structure and prevents the steel from sufferingphase transition to other solid states.[21]