| Feng Shan sacrifice | |
|---|---|
 Jade Emperor Peak, the summit of Mt. Tai | |
| Organised by | Emperor of China |
Feng Shan orfeng-shan (Chinese:封禪), also referred to as theFeng and Shan sacrifices, was an official rite offered by theSon of Heaven (kings of Zhou and lateremperors of China) to pay homage to heaven and earth. The sacrifices were usually offered atMount Tai,[1] the highest peak in the area, and nearbyMount Liangfu. The emperor would pay homage toheaven (on the summit) andearth (at the foot of the mountain) in the Feng (Chinese:封;pinyin:Fēng) and Shan (Chinese:禪;pinyin:Shàn) sacrifices respectively.[2] Completing Feng Shan allowed the emperor to receive themandate of heaven.[3] The term 'feng' can roughly be translated to mean "to seal", while the term 'shan' can roughly be translated to mean "to clear away".
It is considered among the most important rituals ofreligious Confucianism.[4]
According to theRecords of the Grand Historian, Feng involved building altars out of soil at the peak of Mt. Tai and proclaiming the merits and legitimacy of the emperor togod of heaven. Shan involved clearing land at the foot of the mountain to show respect for thegod of earth.[5][6]
It was seen as a point by which emperors could meditate on the relationship between heaven and earth.[7]
While historically considered limited to the Emperor, commoners have performed the ceremony at times without imperial permission.[8] The generalHuo Qubing did it alone.[8]
It is considered a prerequisite that the empire is in a period of prosperity with a good emperor and auspicious signs to perform the ritual.[9] Many sovereigns refused to perform the ritual citing themselves as unworthy of it.[4]
They are considered parallel to theSecular Games of the Roman Empire in their political role with both being highly infrequent celebrations.[10] Both had high religious significance and were influential in changing narratives of power.[10]
Worship at Mount Tai began in prehistoric times.[11] TheYellow Emperor is said to have performed the ceremony before ascending to heaven as an immortal.[10] It continued through theZhou dynasty.[11] During theWarring States Period, Mount Tai was located on the border betweenQi andLu, and leaders from both nations would carry out sacrifices at the mountain. In 219 BC,Qin Shihuang carried out what would come to be considered the first Feng and Shan sacrifices in celebration of uniting China under theQin dynasty.[11]
The second emperor to carry out the sacrifices wasEmperor Wu of Han, who conducted them at Mount Tai in 110 BC.[12] This event is regarded as the formal establishment ofera names in Chinese history, since Emperor Wu used the Feng Shan sacrifice at Mount Tai to proclaim a new era calledyuanfeng (元封).[13][14]Emperor Gaozong of Tang carried out the Feng and Shan sacrifices more times than any other emperor in Chinese history.Japan, India, thePersian court in exile,Goguryeo,Baekje,Silla, theTurks,Khotan, theKhmer, and theUmayyad Caliphate all had representatives attending the Feng and Shan sacrifices held by Gaozong of Tang in 666 at Mount Tai.[15]
Wu Zetian carried out Feng and Shan sacrifices atMount Song. The last emperor to carry out Feng and Shan sacrifices wasEmperor Zhenzong of theSong dynasty.[16] After the sacrifices were discontinued in 1008 AD, theDai Temple wasbuilt at the site and became a major pilgrimage centerduring the Song dynasty.[12] Centuries after the Song period, emperors in theQing dynasty would perform similar rites at Mount Tai. There are only six verifiable accounts of performances in all of Chinese history.[17] The last recorded traditional Feng Shan was done in 1790 by theQianlong Emperor.[18]
In modern times a festival claiming continuity occurs every year.[7] It is done with a large modern light show. However, the latter did not any equivalent in the ancient or medieval implementation of the sacrifice.[19][20][7]
In Japan theFestival of the Six Realms [ja] (Japanese:六道冥官祭) was performed based on the Feng Shan. It was performed from the time ofEmperor Go-Yōzei (1571–1617) until the reign ofEmperor Kōmei (1831–1867), the last Emperor of theEdo period, was not performed for Emperor Meiji (1852–1912). The Tokugawa shoguns, like the Emperors, have always performed the festival every time they weregiven the position of shogun by the Emperors [ja]. The Tsuchimikado family lost their official position in charge of onmyōdō, and also lost the exclusive right to issue the license, and although they had no choice but to further transform the Tensha Tsuchimikado Shinto into more shintoistically, they were deprived of their influence over private onmyōji in various regions.
The Festival of the Great Emperor of the Sacred Mountain of the East, which is held to honorDongyue Dadi, the ruler of human life, and the Festival of the Deva and Naraka, which was held every time an Emperor ascended to the throne.
TheDaijosai ritual during the coronation of the Emperor is sometimes seen as parallel, but it does not have a ritual continuity or inspiration from the rite.