Masturbation is frequent in both sexes. Various medical and psychological benefits have been attributed to a healthy attitude toward sexual activity in general and to masturbation in particular. Nocausal relationship between masturbation and any form of mental or physical disorder has been found.[7][8] Masturbation is considered by clinicians to be a healthy, normal part of sexual enjoyment. The only exceptions to "masturbation causes no harm" are certain cases ofPeyronie's disease[9] andhard flaccid syndrome.[10]
Masturbation has been depicted in art since prehistoric times, and is both mentioned and discussed in very early writings. Religions vary in theirviews of masturbation. In the 18th and 19th centuries, some European theologians and physicians described it in negative terms, but during the 20th century, thesetaboos generally declined. There has been an increase in discussion and portrayal of masturbation in art, popular music, television, films, and literature. The legal status of masturbation has also varied through history and masturbation in public is illegal in most countries.[11]Masturbation in non-human animals has been observed both in the wild and captivity.[12][13][14]
Etymology
The wordmasturbation was introduced in the 18th century, based on the Latin verbmasturbari, alongside the slightly earlieronanism.TheLatin verbmasturbari is ofuncertain origin. Suggested derivations include an unattested word forpenis,*mazdo, cognate withGreek μέζεαmézea 'genitals', or alternatively a corruption of an unattested*manu stuprare ("to defile with the hand"), by association withturbare 'to disturb'.[15][16]
Terminology
Whilemasturbation is the formal word for this practice, many other expressions are in common use. Terms such asplaying with oneself,pleasuring oneself and slang such aswanking,[17]jerking off,jacking off,fapping[18] andfrigging are common.Self-abuse andself-pollution were common in early modern times and are still found in modern dictionaries. A large variety of othereuphemisms anddysphemisms exist which describe masturbation. For a list of terms, see the entry formasturbate inWiktionary.
Techniques
General
Masturbation involves touching, pressing, rubbing, or massaging one's owngenital area with the hands, fingers, or against an object such as apillow; inserting fingers or an object into thevagina oranus (seeanal masturbation); and stimulating the penis or vulva with an electricvibrator, which may also be inserted into the vagina or anus. It may also involve touching, rubbing, or pinching thenipples or othererogenous zones while masturbating. Both sexes sometimes applylubricants to reduce friction.[19]
Reading or viewingpornography,sexual fantasies, or other erotic stimuli may lead to a desire for sexual release such as by masturbation. Pornography is also used to assist with masturbation and to improve the experience of masturbating.[20] Some people getsexual pleasure by inserting objects, such asurethral sounds, into theurethra (the tube through which urine and, in men, semen, flows),[21] a practice known asurethral play or "sounding".[22] Other objects such as ball point pens and thermometers are sometimes used, although this practice can lead to injury or infection.[23] Some people usesex machines to simulate intercourse.[24]
Men and women may masturbate until they are close to orgasm, stop for a while to reduce excitement, and then resume masturbating. They may repeat this cycle multiple times. This "stop and go" build-up, known as "edging", can achieve even stronger orgasms.[25] Rarely, people quit stimulation just before orgasm to retain the heightened energy that normally comes down after orgasm.[26]
Illustration of a female masturbating by manually stimulating her vulva (fingering) –Gustav Klimt'sWoman seated with thighs apart (1916)
Manual stimulation for masturbation among females involves the stroking or rubbing of thevulva, especially theclitoris, with anindex ormiddle finger, or both. Sometimes one or more fingers may be inserted into the vagina to stroke its frontal wall where theG-spot may be located.[27]
Other methods
Masturbation aids such as a vibrator,dildo, orBen Wa balls can also be used to stimulate the vagina and clitoris. Many women caress their breasts or stimulate a nipple with the free hand and anal stimulation is also enjoyed by some. Personal lubricant is sometimes used during masturbation, especially whenpenetration is involved, but this is not universal and many women find theirnatural lubrication sufficient.
Common positions for female masturbation include lying on one's back or face down, sitting,squatting,kneeling, or standing. In a bath or shower, a female may direct water via a handheld showerhead at her clitoris, vulva, or perineum. Lying face down one may use their hands, one may straddle a pillow, the corner or edge of the bed, a partner's leg or some scrunched-up clothing and "hump" the vulva and clitoris against it. Standing up, a chair, the corner of an item of furniture, or even a washing machine can be used to stimulate the clitoris through the labia and clothing. Some masturbate only using pressure applied to the clitoris without direct contact, for example by pressing the palm or ball of the hand againstunderwear or other clothing.[citation needed] In the 1920s,Havelock Ellis reported that turn-of-the-century seamstresses using treadle-operated sewing machines could achieve orgasm by sitting near the edge of their chairs.[28]
Women can stimulate themselves sexually by crossing their legs tightly and clenching the muscles in their legs, creating pressure on the genitals. This can potentially be done in public without observers noticing. Thoughts, fantasies, and memories of previous instances of arousal and orgasm can produce sexual excitation. Some women can orgasm spontaneously by force of will alone, although this may not strictly qualify as masturbation as no physical stimulus is involved.[29][30]
Sex therapists will sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm, for example, to help improve sexual health and relationships, to help determine what is erotically pleasing to them, and because mutual masturbation can lead to more satisfying sexual relationships and added intimacy.[31][32]
Male masturbation
Manual stimulation
Illustration of a male masturbating by manually stimulating his penis –Egon Schiele'sSelbstbefriedigung (1911)
The most common masturbation technique is to hold thepenis with a loose fist and then move the hand up and down on theglans and theshaft of the penis.[33] This type of stimulation can result inorgasm andejaculation. The hand motion and the speed of the action may vary throughout the masturbation session. Some men may use their free hand tofondle theirscrotum andtesticles, theperineum, and other body parts, or may place both hands directly on the penis. Common positions include standing, sitting, lying on one's back or lying face down,squatting, orkneeling. In some cases, to avoid friction and irritation or to enhance sexual sensation, men prefer to use apersonal lubricant orsaliva.[33] Men may also rub or massage different areas of their glans, like itsventral surface, the left and right sides, the rounded rim, known as thecorona, and around thefrenulum.[34] Some men lie face down inprone position and gently rub their penis against a comfortable surface, such as a mattress or pillow, a technique known as prone masturbation.[33][35]
Other methods
Prostate massage is one other technique used for sexual stimulation, often to reach orgasm. Theprostate is sometimes referred to as the "maleG-spot" or P-spot.[36] Some men can achieve orgasm through stimulation of the prostate gland, by stimulating it using a well-lubricated finger or dildo inserted through the anus into therectum. Men who report the sensation of prostate stimulation often give descriptions similar to females' accounts of G-spot stimulation.[37][38] In some men, prostate stimulation might produce more intense orgasms than penile stimulation.[37] Stimulating the prostate from outside, via pressure on theperineum, can be pleasurable as well.[39] Anal masturbation without any prostate stimulation, with fingers or otherwise, is also a technique that some men enjoy. The muscles of the anus contract during orgasm, thus the presence of an object holding thesphincter open can strengthen the sensation of the contractions and intensify orgasm.[40]
Some men keep their hands stationary while pumping into them with pelvic thrusts to simulate the motions ofsexual intercourse. Thenipples are erogenous zones and vigorous stimulation of them during masturbation can result in enhanced sexual arousal.[41] Others may also use vibrators and other sexual devices for sexual stimulation. The device can be used to stimulate the penis and other areas, like the scrotum, the perineum or the anus.[42] Other sexual toys for men areartificial vaginas, likefleshlights or othersimulacrums.[43] In a bath or shower, a male may direct water via a handheldshowerhead at his frenulum, testicles, or perineum. A somewhat controversial ejaculation control technique is to put intense pressure on the perineum, about halfway between thescrotum and the anus, just before ejaculating. This can, however, redirect semen into the bladder (referred to asretrograde ejaculation).[44]
Watercolor of a couple engaging in mutual masturbation by touching their own genitals
Mutual masturbation involves two or more people who either masturbate at the same time or sexually stimulate each other, usually with the hands. It can be practiced by people of anysexual orientation, and can be part of other sexual activity. It may be used asforeplay, or as an alternative to sexual penetration.[3][4] When used as an alternative to penile-vaginal penetration, the goal may be to preservevirginity or to avoid risk of pregnancy.[45][46]
Forms of mutual masturbation include:
Non-contact mutual masturbation – Two people masturbating in the presence of each other but not touching.
Contact mutual masturbation – One person touching another person to masturbate. The other person may do the same during or after.
Non-contact group – More than two people masturbating in the presence of each other in a group but not touching each other.
Contact group – More than two people physically touching each other to masturbate as a group.
Mutual masturbation foreplay – The manual stimulation of each other's genitals where the session eventually leads to sexual intercourse.[47]
Remote mutual masturbation – Some mutual masturbation occurs between individuals in different locations, facilitated by internet enabled devices, sometimes referred to asteledildonics.
Frequency, age, and sex
Frequency of masturbation is determined by many factors, e.g., one's resistance tosexual tension,hormone levels influencingsexual arousal, sexual habits, peer influences, health and one's attitude to masturbation formed by culture; E. Heiby and J. Becker examined the latter.[48] Medical causes have also been associated with masturbation, wherein masturbation is not cause, but effect,[49][50][51] with the exception of inserting foreign objects into the urinary bladder.[52]
Different studies have found that masturbation is frequent in humans.Alfred Kinsey's 1950s studies on the US population have shown that 92% of men and 62% of women have masturbated during their lifespan.[30] Similar results have been found in a 2007 British national probability survey. It was found that, among individuals aged 16 to 44, 95% of men and 71% of women masturbated at some point in their lives. 73% of men and 37% of women reported masturbating in the four weeks before their interview, while 53% of men and 18% of women reported masturbating in the previous seven days.[53]
The Merck Manual says that 97% of men and 80% of women have masturbated and that, generally speaking, males masturbate more than females.[54][55][56] It states that almost half of the population reported to have masturbated in the past four weeks.[57]
Masturbation is considered normal when performed by children,[58][8][59] even in early infancy.[49][60][61] In 2009, theSheffield NHS Health Trust issued a pamphlet called "Pleasure" which discussed the health benefits of masturbation. This was done in response to data and experience from the other EU member states to reduce teen pregnancy andSTIs (STDs), and to promote healthy habits.[62]
According to theNew Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry (1st ed.), "Masturbation and sexual play are common well before puberty. Sexual behaviour in young children is common, and should only be regarded as a sign of sexual abuse when it is out of context and is inappropriate."[63]
In the bookHuman Sexuality: Diversity in Contemporary America, by Strong, Devault and Sayad, the authors point out, "A baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis". "Baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically, almost violently, appearing to experience orgasm."[64] Italian gynecologists Giorgio Giorgi and Marco Siccardi observed viaultrasound a female fetus possibly masturbating and having what appeared to be an orgasm.[65]
Popular belief asserts that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are; however, much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a relationship. Contrary to this belief, several studies reveal a positive correlation between the frequency of masturbation and the frequency of intercourse. A study has reported a significantly higher rate of masturbation in gay men and women who were in a relationship.[53][66][67][68]
Coon and Mitterer stated: "Approximately 70 percent of married women and men masturbate at least occasionally."[69][70][71]
Mitterer, Coon and Martini wrote in 2015: "Do more men masturbate than women? Yes. While 89 percent of women reported that they had masturbated at some time, the figure was 95 percent for men. (Some cynics add, 'And the other 5 percent lied!')"[72]
Evolutionary utility
Female masturbation alters conditions in the vagina, cervix and uterus, in ways that can alter the chances of conception from intercourse, depending on the timing of the masturbation. A female's orgasm between one minute before and 45 minutes after insemination favors the chances of sperm reaching her egg. If, for example, she has had intercourse with more than one male, such an orgasm can increase the likelihood of a pregnancy by one of them.[73][74] Female masturbation can also provide protection against cervical infections by increasing the acidity of the cervical mucus and by moving debris out of the cervix.[74]
In males, masturbation flushes out old sperm with lowmotility from the male's genital tract. The next ejaculation then contains proportionally more fresh sperm, which have higher chances of achieving conception during intercourse. If more than one male has intercourse with a female, the sperm with the highest motility willcompete more effectively.[75][76][77]
Solo masturbation is a sexual activity that is nearly free of risk ofsexually transmitted infection.[85] With two or more participants, the risk of sexually transmitted infection, while not eliminated, remains lower than with most forms ofpenetrative sex. Support for such a view and for making masturbation part of the American sex education curriculum led to the dismissal ofUS Surgeon GeneralJoycelyn Elders during theClinton administration.[86]
Benefits
Masturbation among adolescents contributes to their developing a sense of mastery over sexual impulses, and it has a role in the physical and emotional development of prepubescents and pubescents.[87]
Sex therapists sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm; for example, to help improve sexual health and relationships, to help determine what is erotically pleasing to them, and because mutual masturbation can lead to more satisfying sexual relationships and added intimacy.[31][32]Encyclopedia Britannica mentions the use of masturbation inside sex therapy.[88] So doesHuman Sexuality: An Encyclopedia, also.[89]Britannica also calls the idea that masturbation is physically harmful a "myth", and states that there is no evidence that it is an immature behavior.[90]
Mutual masturbation enables partners in a couple to reveal the "map to [their] pleasure centers", learning how they enjoy being touched. When intercourse is inconvenient or impractical, mutual masturbation affords couples the opportunity to obtain sexual release as often as desired.[91]
It is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relievedepression and lead to a higher sense ofself-esteem.[92] When one partner in a relationship wants more sex than the other, masturbation can provide a balancing effect and promote a more harmonious relationship.[91]
In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles ofThe Cancer Council Australia[93] found that males who masturbated frequently had a lower probability of developingprostate cancer, although they could not demonstrate a direct causation. A 2008 study concluded that frequent ejaculation between the ages of 20 and 40 was correlated with higher risk of developing prostate cancer, while frequent ejaculation in the sixth decade of life was found to be correlated with a lower risk.[94] However, a larger 2016 study found that regular ejaculation markedly reduced prostate cancer risk in all age groups.[95]
A study published in 1997 found an inverse association between death fromcoronary heart disease and frequency of orgasm, even given the risk that myocardialischaemia andmyocardial infarction can be triggered by sexual activity. Its authors stated: "The association between frequency of orgasm and all cause mortality was also examined using the midpoint of each response category recorded as number of orgasms per year. The age adjustedodds ratio for an increase of 100 orgasms per year was 0.64 (0.44 to 0.95)." That is, a difference in mortality appeared between any two subjects when one subject ejaculated at around two times per week more than the other. Assuming a broad range average of between three and five ejaculations per week for healthy males, this would mean five to seven ejaculations per week. This is consistent with a 2003 paper that found the strength of these correlations increased with increasing frequency of ejaculation.[96]
A 2008 study atTabriz Medical University found that ejaculation reduces swollen nasal blood vessels, freeing the airway for normal breathing. The mechanism is through stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and is long-lasting. The study author suggests: "It can be done [from] time-to-time to alleviate the congestion and the patient can adjust the number of intercourses or masturbations depending on the severity of the symptoms."[97]
Sexual climax leaves an individual in a relaxed and contented state, frequently followed by drowsiness and sleep.[98][99][100]
Some professionals consider masturbation equivalent to a cardiovascular workout.[101] Though research remains scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders, particularly those recovering fromheart attacks, should resume physical activity gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through withphysical therapy sessions to help improve endurance. In general, sex slightly increases energy consumption.[102][103]
Risks
Masturbation is generally safe,[104] and complications are rare. When issues do occur, they are generally due to methodology[105][106][107] or underlying psychiatric illness.[108][109]
Those who insert objects as aids to masturbation risk them becoming stuck (either due to size, technique, or anatomy; includingrectal foreign bodies[106] andurethral foreign bodies[107]), causing damage. Such risks can effect both men and women, with a multitude of case reports available, including that of a female who pierced her urethra after inserting two pencils during masturbation,[52] and the case of a male who required extensive treatment after inserting a pair of headphones into his bladder.[110]
A small percentage of males experiencepostorgasmic illness syndrome (POIS), which can cause severe muscle pain throughout the body and other symptoms immediately following ejaculation, whether due to masturbation or partnered sex. The symptoms last for up to a week.[114][115][116] Some doctors speculate that the frequency of POIS "in the population may be greater than has been reported in the academic literature",[117] and that many cases are undiagnosed.[118]
Compulsive masturbation and other compulsive behaviors can be signs of an emotional problem, which may need to be addressed by a mental health specialist.[109] As with any "nervous habit", it is more helpful to consider the causes of compulsive behavior, rather than try to repress masturbation.[119]
Alongside many other factors—such as medical evidence, age-inappropriate sexual knowledge, sexualized play and precocious or seductive behavior—excessive masturbation may be an indicator ofsexual abuse.[120][121]
According toDSM-5-TR, "Delayed ejaculation is associated with highly frequent masturbation, use of masturbation techniques not easily duplicated by a partner, and marked disparities between sexual fantasies during masturbation and the reality of sex with a partner."[108]
Thesexual stimulation of one's owngenitals has beeninterpreted variously by different religions, the subject of legislation, social controversy, activism, as well as intellectual study insexology. Social views regarding masturbation taboo have varied greatly in different cultures, and over history.
There are depictions of male and female masturbation in prehistoricrock paintings around the world. From the earliest records, the ancientSumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex.[124] The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women,[124] and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners.[124] Men would often usepuru-oil, a special oil probably mixed with pulverizediron ore intended to enhance friction.[124] Masturbation was also an act of creation and, inSumerian mythology, the godEnki was believed to have created theTigris andEuphrates rivers by masturbating and ejaculating into their emptyriverbeds.[125] Theancient Egyptians also regarded masturbation by a deity as an act of creation; the godAtum was believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation.[126]
Theancient Greeks also regarded masturbation as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure.[127] Most information about masturbation in ancient Greece comes from surviving works ofancient Greek comedy andpottery.[122] Masturbation is frequently referenced in the surviving comedies ofAristophanes, which are the most important sources of information on ancient Greek views on the subject.[122] In ancient Greek pottery,satyrs are often depicted masturbating.[122][123] According to theLives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by the third-century AD biographerDiogenes Laërtius,Diogenes of Sinope, the fourth-century BCCynic philosopher, often masturbated in public, which was considered scandalous.[128][129][130] When people confronted him over this, he would say, "If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly."[131][129][130]
Among non-western perspectives on the matter, some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a loweredenergy level of theyang in men, but causes no harm to women withyin, even going further to introduce masturbating tools for women in books.[132] Within theAfrican Congo Basin, theAka,Ngandu, Lesi, Brbs, and Ituriethnic groups all lack a word for masturbation in their languages and are confused by the concept of masturbation.[133]
Development of the contemporary Western world view
18th century
Onanism is a hybrid term which combines the proper noun,Onan, with the suffix,-ism.[134] Notions of self-pollution, impurity and uncleanness were increasingly associated with various other sexual vices and crimes of the body (such as fornication, sodomy, adultery, incest and obscene language); in reaction to the 17th-century libertine culture, middle-class moralists increasingly campaigned for a reformation of manners and a stricter regulation of the body. Paradoxically, a crime that was secret and private became a popular and fashionable topic. Moreover, writers tended to focus more on the perceived links with mental and physical illnesses that were deemed to be associated with the sense of moral outrage. Attention increasingly shifted to the prevention and cure of this illness which perilously sapped men of their virility.[135]
The first use of the word "onanism" to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation is a pamphlet first distributed in London in 1716, titled "Onania, or the Heinous Sin of self-Pollution, And All Its Frightful Consequences, In Both Sexes, Considered: With Spiritual and Physical Advice To Those Who Have Already Injured Themselves By This Abominable Practice." The Online Etymology Dictionary, however, claims the earliest known use ofonanism occurred in 1727. In 1743–1745, the British physicianRobert James publishedA Medicinal Dictionary, in which he described masturbation as being "productive of the most deplorable and generally incurable disorders" and stated that "there is perhaps no sin productive of so many hideous consequences".[136] One of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady inOnania was the notable Swiss physicianSamuel-Auguste Tissot. In 1760, he publishedL'Onanisme, his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill-effects of masturbation. Though Tissot's ideas are now consideredconjectural at best, his treatise was presented as a scholarly, scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent.[137]
Immanuel Kant regarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law. InThe Metaphysics of Morals (1797), he made thea posteriori argument that "such an unnatural use of one's sexual attribute" strikes "everyone upon his thinking of it" as "a violation of one's duty to himself", and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name (unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of suicide). He went on, however, to acknowledge that "it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissibility of that unnatural use", but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that "a man gives up his personality … when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive".[138] His arguments were rejected as flawed byethicists of the 20th and 21st centuries.[139][140]
19th century
By 1838,Jean Esquirol had declared in hisDes Maladies Mentales that masturbation was "recognized in all countries as a cause of insanity".[141][142] The medical literature of the time also described more invasive procedures including electric shock treatment,infibulation, restraining devices likechastity belts andstraitjackets,cauterization or – as a last resort – wholesalesurgical excision of the genitals.[citation needed] Medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change towards the end of the 19th century whenH. Havelock Ellis, in his seminal 1897 workStudies in the Psychology of Sex, questioned Tissot's premises.[143]
20th century
In 1905,Sigmund Freud addressed masturbation in hisThree Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and associated it with addictive substances. He described the masturbation of infants at the period when the infant is nursing, at four years of age, and at puberty. At the same time, the supposed medical condition ofhysteria—from the Greekhystera or uterus—was being treated by what would now be described as medically administered or medically prescribed masturbation for women. In 1910, the meetings of theVienna psychoanalytic circle discussed the moral or health effects of masturbation,[144] but its publication on the matter was suppressed. "Concerning Specific Forms of Masturbation" is a 1922 essay by another Austrian, the psychiatrist and psychoanalystWilhelm Reich. In the seven and a half page essay Reich accepts the prevalent notions on the roles ofunconscious fantasy and the subsequent emergingguilt feelings which he saw as originating from the act itself.[citation needed]
By 1930,F. W. W. Griffin, editor ofThe Scouter, had written in a book forRover Scouts stating that the temptation to masturbate was "a quite natural stage of development" and, citingEllis' work, held that "the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error." The work of sexologistAlfred Kinsey during the 1940s and 1950s, most notably theKinsey Reports, insisted that masturbation was an instinctive behavior for both males and females. In 1961The Encyclopedia of Sexual Behavior edited byAlbert Ellis and Albert Abarbanel declared that masturbation is normal and healthy at any age.[145] In the US, masturbation has not been a diagnosable condition sinceDSM II (1968).[146]Circumcision was sometimes used as a prevention for masturbation, with some mainstream pediatric manuals in English-speaking countries continuing to recommend it as a deterrent against masturbation into the 1950s,[147]: 752 and a 1970 edition of the standard US urology textbook said "Parents readily ... adopt measures which may avert masturbation. Circumcision is usually advised on these grounds."[147]: 750 [148]
In the 20th century (1962) the idea of "masturbatory insanity" has been attributed to irrational and unscientific hypotheses.[149]
Thomas Szasz stated in 1973 the shift inscientific consensus:[150][151][152] "Masturbation: the primary sexual activity of mankind. In the nineteenth century, it was a disease; in the twentieth, it's a cure."[153]
Dörner and others wrote in their now classic book (1978): "Self-satisfaction is therefore a priceless good for the success of sexual pleasure, but also for other partnership and sexual relationships: for only if I can offer something to myself can I also offer it to someone else. ... Not self-satisfaction, but feelings closely correlated with it need among others help through counseling, respectively therapy!"[154]
In the 1980s,Michel Foucault was arguing masturbation taboo was "rape by the parents of the sexual activity of their children". However, in 1994, when thesurgeon general of the United States,Joycelyn Elders, said that it should be mentioned in schoolsex education curricula, as a side note, that masturbation is safe and healthy, she was forced to resign,[86] with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching ofhow to masturbate.[citation needed]
21st century
Thomas W. Laqueur stated: "Less clinical, less overtly political, the solitary vice of the imagination and of fantasy that had so terrified Rousseau had been transformed into a virtue: self-pleasuring was the path to self-knowledge, self-discovery, and spiritual well-being."[155]
Both practices and cultural views of masturbation have continued to evolve in the 21st century, partly because the contemporarylifeworld is increasingly technical.[according to whom?] For example, digital photographs or live video may be used to share masturbatory experiences either in a broadcast format (possibly in exchange of money, as with performances bywebcam models), or between members of along-distance relationship.Teledildonics is a growing field. Masturbation has been depicted as a complicated part of "Love in the 21st Century" in theChannel 4 drama of the same name.[156]
Views on masturbation
Stigma
Even though manymedical professionals andscientists have found large amounts of evidence that masturbating is healthy[55][157][153][158][81][82][83][80][146] and commonly practiced by males and females, stigma on the topic still persists today. In November 2013, Matthew Burdette committedsuicide after a fellow student secretly made a video of him masturbating in a restroom stall, and published it.[159][160][161]
In an article published by the nonprofit organizationPlanned Parenthood Federation of America, it was reported: "Proving that these ancient stigmas against masturbation are still alive and felt by women and men, researchers in 1994 found that half of the adult women and men who masturbate feel guilty about it (Laumann, et al., 1994. p.85). Another study in 2000 found that adolescent young men are still frequently afraid to admit that they masturbate (Halpern, et al., 2000, 327)."[32]
Encouragement
In the UK in 2009, a leaflet was issued by theNational Health Service inSheffield carrying the slogan, "an orgasm a day keeps the doctor away". It also says: "Health promotion experts advocate five portions of fruit and veg a day and 30 minutes' physical activity three times a week. What about sex or masturbation twice a week?" This leaflet has been circulated to parents, teachers and youth workers and is meant to update sex education by telling older school students about the benefits of enjoyable sex. Its authors have said that for too long, experts have concentrated on the need for "safe sex" and committed relationships while ignoring the principal reason that many people have sex. The leaflet is entitledPleasure. Instead of promoting teenage sex, it could encourage young people to delay losing their virginity until they are certain they will enjoy the experience, said one of its authors.[62][162]
The Spanish region ofExtremadura launched a program in 2009 to encourage "sexual self-exploration and the discovery of self-pleasure" in people aged from 14 to 17. The €14,000 campaign includes leaflets, flyers, a "fanzine", and workshops for the young in which they receive instruction on masturbation techniques along with advice on contraception and self-respect. The initiative, whose slogan is, "Pleasure is in your own hands" has angered local right-wing politicians and challenged traditional Roman Catholic views. Officials from the neighboring region ofAndalucia have expressed an interest in copying the program.[163]
The text bookPalliative care nursing: quality care to the end of life states, "Terminally ill people are likely no different from the general population regarding their masturbation habits. Palliative care practitioners should routinely ask their patients if anything interferes in their ability to masturbate and then work with the patient to correct the problem if it is identified."[164]
A 2016 review paper says that safe masturbation, in moderation (not excessive), is beneficial for heart health, and decreases risk of major adversecardiovascular diseases.[165]
A 2019 research paper says that masturbation, in moderation, can improvesleep quality, especially when one or more orgasms occur during the activity.[166]
Sperm donation
Male masturbation may be used as a method to obtain semen for third party reproductive procedures such asartificial insemination andin vitro fertilisation which may involve the use of either partner or donor sperm.[167][168]
At asperm bank or fertility clinic, a special room or cabin may be set aside so that semen may be produced by male masturbation for use in fertility treatments such as artificial insemination. Most semen used forsperm donation, and all semen donated through a sperm bank by sperm donors, is produced in this way. The facility at a sperm bank used for this purpose is known as a masturbatorium (US) or men's production room (UK). A bed or couch is usually provided for the man, and pornographic films or other material may be made available.[169]
Law
The prosecution of masturbation has varied at different times, from complete illegality to virtually unlimited acceptance. In a 17th-century law code for thePuritan colony ofNew Haven, Connecticut,blasphemers,homosexuals and masturbators were eligible for thedeath penalty.[170]
Often, masturbation in the sight of others is prosecuted under a general law such aspublic indecency, though some laws make specific mention of masturbation. In the UK, masturbating in public is illegal under Section 28 of theTown Police Clauses Act 1847. The penalty may be up to 14 days in prison, depending on a range of circumstantial factors.[171] In the US, laws vary from state to state. In 2010, the Supreme Court of Alabama upheld a state law criminalizing the distribution of sex-toys.[172] In the city of Charlotte, North Carolina, masturbating in public is a class 3 misdemeanor.[171] In 2013, a male found masturbating openly on a beach in Sweden was cleared of charges of sexual assault, the court finding that his activities had not been directed towards any specific person.[173]
In many jurisdictions, masturbation by one person of another is considereddigital penetration which may be illegal in some cases, such as when the other person is a minor.[citation needed]
There is debate whether masturbation should be promoted in correctional institutions. Restrictions on pornography, used to accompany masturbation, are common inAmerican correctional facilities.Connecticut Department of Corrections officials say that these restrictions are intended to avoid ahostile work environment forcorrectional officers.[174] Other researchers argue allowing masturbation could help prisoners restrict their sexual urges to their imaginations rather than engaging inprison rape or other non-masturbatory sexual activity that could pose sexually transmitted infection or other health risks.[175]
Religions vary broadly in their views of masturbation, from considering it completely impermissible (for example in most forms ofChristianity, most forms ofIslam, and some sects ofJudaism)[176] to encouraging and refining it (as, for example, in someDharmic,Neotantra, andTaoist sexual practices).
In October 1972, an important censorship case was held in Australia, leading to the banning ofPhilip Roth's novelPortnoy's Complaint in that country due to its masturbation references. The censorship led to public outcry at the time.[177]
Further portrayals and references to masturbation have occurred throughout literature, and the practice itself has even contributed to the production of literature among certain writers, such asWolfe,Balzac,Flaubert andJohn Cheever.[178]Perhaps the most famous fictional depiction of masturbation occurs in the "Nausicaa" episode ofUlysses by James Joyce. Here, the novel's protagonist Bloom brings himself to covert climax during a public fireworks display after being aroused by a young female's exhibitionism.[citation needed]
InAmerican Pie (1999), Nadia (Shannon Elizabeth) discovers Jim's (Jason Biggs) pornography collection and, while sitting on his bed half-naked, masturbates to it. InAmerican Reunion (2012), Noah (Eugene Levy) attempts to explain the potential joys and difficulties of Jim explaining masturbation to his future son.[184]
Television
In theSeinfeld episode "The Contest",[185] the show's main characters enter into a contest to see who can go the longest without masturbating. BecauseSeinfeld's network,NBC, did not think masturbation was a suitable topic for prime-time television, the word is never used. Instead, the subject is described using a series of euphemisms. "Master of my domain" became a part of the American lexicon from this episode.
Another NBC show,Late Night with Conan O'Brien, had a character known as the Masturbating Bear, a costume of a bear with a diaper covering its genitals. The Masturbating Bear would touch his diaper to simulate masturbation. Prior to leavingLate Night to become host ofThe Tonight Show,Conan O'Brien originally retired the character due to concerns about its appropriateness in an earlier time slot.[186] The Masturbating Bear, however, made hisTonight Show debut during the final days of Conan O'Brien's tenure as host of theTonight Show. It was clear by then that Conan O'Brien was being removed from the show and he spent his last shows pushing the envelope with skits that typically would not be appropriate for theTonight Show, one of which was the Masturbating Bear.[187] After much debate on whether or not he would be able to be used on Conan O'Brien's newTBS show,Conan, the Masturbating Bear made an appearance on the first episode.[188]
In March 2007, the UK broadcasterChannel 4 was to air a season oftelevision programs about masturbation, calledWank Week. (Wank is aBriticism formasturbate.) The series came under public attack from senior television figures and was pulled amid claims of declining editorial standards and controversy over the channel'spublic service broadcasting credentials.
Pornography
Depictions of male and female masturbation are common in pornography, includinggay pornography.Am Abend (1910), one of the earliestpornographic films that have been collected at theKinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction,[189][190] starts with a female masturbation scene. Solo performances in gay pornography have been described in 1985 as "either or both active (tense, upright) and/or passive (supine, exposed, languid, available)", whereas female solo performances are said to be "exclusively passive (supine, spread, seated, squatted, orifices offered, etc.)".[191] Solo pornography recognized withAVN Awards include theAll Alone series[192] andAll Natural: Glamour Solos.[193]
Masturbatory behavior has been documented in a very wide range of species. Individuals of some species have been known to create tools for masturbation purposes.[14]Many animals, both male and female, masturbate, both when partners are available and otherwise.[194][195] For example, it has been observed in cats,[196] dogs,[197][198] maleCape ground squirrels,[131] male deer,[199][200][201] rhinoceroses,[202] boars,[203] male monkeys,[204][205] cetaceans,[206] and otters.[207]
^abLehmiller, Justin J. (2017).The Psychology of Human Sexuality (Second ed.).John Wiley & Sons. p. 402.ISBN978-1-119-16470-8.Masturbation refers to all solo forms of self-stimulation focusing on the genitals. Masturbation practices vary widely depending upon the individual's body and personal preferences. For instance, masturbation among women may involve manipulation of the clitoris and labia, stimulation of the breasts, or vaginal penetration with a sex toy. [...] Among men, masturbation most frequently involves using one or both hands to stimulate the penis. Of course, men sometimes utilize sex toys too (e.g., masturbation sleeves, butt-plugs, etc.).
^abBowman, Christin P. (2017). Nadal, Kevin L.; Mazzula, Silvia L.; Rivera, David P. (eds.).The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender.SAGE. p. 1123.ISBN978-1-4833-8427-6.Masturbation is the act of touching or otherwise stimulating one's own body, particularly one's genitals, for the purpose of sexual pleasure and/or orgasm. The term is most commonly used to describe solitary masturbation, in which people provide themselves with sexual stimulation while they are physically alone. Mutual masturbation is when two or more people manually stimulate their own body or each other's bodies.
^Coleman, Eli (2012) [2002]. Bockting, Walter O.; Coleman, Eli (eds.).Masturbation as a Means of Achieving Sexual Health(PDF). New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 7.ISBN978-0-7890-2047-5.OCLC50913590. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 22 July 2015.Despite the scientific evidence indicating that masturbation is generally a normal variant of sexual expression and that it does not seem to have a causal relationship with sexual pathology, negative attitudes about masturbation persist and it remains stigmatized.
^abMesser, Drew C.; Walker, C. Eugene (6 December 2012) [2003]."Masturbation". In Ollendick, Thomas H.; Schroeder, Carolyn S. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Clinical Child and Pediatric Psychology. Boston, MA: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 359.ISBN978-1-4615-0107-7.OCLC913623298. Note: Messer's and Walker's article cannot be protected by copyright.
^abWells, Ken R. (2005). "Masturbation". In Krapp, Kristine M.; Wilson, Jeffrey (eds.).The Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale Cengage. p. 1150.ISBN0-7876-9429-0.OCLC57626126.
^Hallikeri, Vinay R.; Gouda, Hareesh S.; Aramani, Sunil C.; Vijaykumar, A.G.; Ajaykumar, T.S. (July–December 2010)."MASTURBATION—AN OVERVIEW".Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology.27 (2):46–49.ISSN0971-1929. Archived fromthe original on 21 August 2016.Today, masturbatory act is considered as a healthy practice when done in private and an offence if done in the public in most of the countries.
^Darby, Robert (1 September 2004). "A Post-Modernist Theory of Wanking: Solitary Sex: A Cultural History of Masturbation. By Thomas Laqueur (New York: Zone Books, 2003. 501pp.)".Journal of Social History.38 (1). Oxford University Press (OUP):205–210.doi:10.1353/jsh.2004.0083.ISSN0022-4529.S2CID142231558.
^Leung, Isaac (2009). The Cultural Production of Sex Machines and the Contemporary Technosexual Practices. InGrenzfurthner, J. et al., eds.Do androids sleep with electric sheep? Critical perspectives on sexuality and pornography in science and social fiction.RE/SEARCH,ISBN978-1-889307-23-7
^"Sex Editorials". 16 March 2004. Archived fromthe original on 1 January 2012. Retrieved15 January 2012. "The Stop-And-Go Masturbation Technique for Men and Women"
Ellis, Havelock (1927), Studies in the Psychology of Sex (3rd edition), Volume I; Auto-Eroticism: A Study of the Spontaneous Manifestations of the Sexual Impulse; section I; "The Sewing-machine and the Bicycle:" quotes one Pouillet as saying "it is a well-recognized fact that to work a sewing-machine with the body in a certain position produces sexual excitement leading to the orgasm. The occurrence of the orgasm is indicated to the observer by the machine being worked for a few seconds with uncontrollable rapidity. This sound is said to be frequently heard in large French workrooms, and it is part of the duty of the superintendents of the rooms to make the girls sit properly."
^abShuman, Tracy (February 2006)."Your Guide to Masturbation". WebMD, Inc./The Cleveland Clinic Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Retrieved29 July 2006.
^Rullo, Jordan E.; Lorenz, Tierney; Ziegelmann, Matthew J.; Meihofer, Laura; Herbenick, Debra; Faubion, Stephanie S. (2018)."Genital vibration for sexual function and enhancement: a review of evidence".Sexual and Relationship Therapy: Journal of the British Association for Sexual and Relationship Therapy.33 (3):263–274.doi:10.1080/14681994.2017.1419557.ISSN1468-1994.PMC7678782.PMID33223960.Vibrator use for male genitalia primarily focuses on the penis as the target for vibratory stimulation. However, vibratory stimulation of other sexual organs including the testicles or scrotum, perineum, and anus has been described as well
^See here[1] andpages 47–49 for views on what constitutes virginity loss and therefore sexual intercourse or other sexual activity; source discusses how gay and lesbian individuals define virginity loss, and how the majority of researchers and heterosexuals define virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in penile-vaginal sex.Laura M. Carpenter (2005).Virginity Lost: An Intimate Portrait of First Sexual Experiences.NYU Press. pp. 295 pages.ISBN978-0-8147-1652-6. Retrieved9 October 2011.
^Bryan Strong; Christine DeVault; Theodore F. Cohen (2010).The Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationship in a Changing Society.Cengage Learning. p. 186.ISBN978-0-534-62425-5. Retrieved8 October 2011.Most people agree that we maintain virginity as long as we refrain from sexual (vaginal) intercourse. ...But occasionally we hear people speak of 'technical virginity' ... Other research, especially research looking into virginity loss, reports that 35% of virgins, defined as people who have never engaged in vaginal intercourse, have nonetheless engaged in one or more other forms of heterosexual activity (e.g. oral sex, anal sex, or mutual masturbation). ... Data indicate that 'a very significant proportion of teens ha[ve] had experience with oral sex, even if they haven't had sexual intercourse, and may think of themselves as virgins'.
^"Mutual Masturbation". 12 June 2006. Archived fromthe original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved7 August 2010. — A biographical collection of data for a sociological repository on the topic of mutual masturbating to study changes on the activity over time.
^Heiby, Elaine; Becker, James D. (April 1980). "Effect of filmed modeling on the self-reported frequency of masturbation".Arch. Sex. Behav.9 (2):115–21.doi:10.1007/BF01542263.PMID7396686.S2CID25846450.
^Brown, George R. (3 July 2023)."Overview of Sexuality".MSD Manual Consumer Version. Retrieved23 January 2025.
^Brown, George R. (4 July 2023)."Overview of Sexuality".Merck Manuals Professional Edition. Retrieved19 January 2024.
^Slap, MD, Gail B.; Cataldo, RN, Ed.D., Laura Jean (7 June 2011)."Masturbation". In Longe, Jacqueline L. (ed.).The Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health: Infancy Through Adolescence. Vol. 4 (Second ed.). Detroit, Mich.: Cengage Gale. p. 1404.ISBN978-1-4144-8641-3.OCLC712621295.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Hansen, J.K.; Balslev, T. (November 2009) [2008]. "Hand activities in infantile masturbation: a video analysis of 13 cases".European Journal of Paediatric Neurology.13 (6):508–10.doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2008.10.007.ISSN1090-3798.PMID19010071.Infantile masturbation is considered a variant of normal behaviour.
^Yule, William (2000). "2.5.1.1 Developmental psychology through infancy, childhood, and adolescence". In Gelder, Michael G.; López-Ibor, Juan J.; Andreasen, Nancy (eds.).New Oxford textbook of psychiatry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-852818-0.OCLC45697867.
^Burleson, Mary H; Trevathan, Wenda R; Gregory, W.Larry (2002). "Sexual behavior in lesbian and heterosexual women: relations with menstrual cycle phase and partner availability".Psychoneuroendocrinology.27 (4):489–503.doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(01)00066-x.ISSN0306-4530.PMID11912001.S2CID24519130.
^Mitterer, John O.; Coon, Dennis; Martini, Tanya (2015).Psychology: A Modular Approach. Nelson Education Limited. p. 424.ISBN978-0-17-650345-1. Retrieved5 March 2022.Do more men masturbate than women? Yes. While 89 percent of women reported that they had masturbated at some time, the figure was 95 percent for men. (Some cynics add, "And the other 5 percent lied!")
^Baker, Robin (June 1996).Sperm Wars: The Science of Sex. Diane Books Publishing Company.ISBN978-0-7881-6004-2.
^abBaker, Robin R.; Bellis, Mark A. (November 1993). "Human sperm competition: Ejaculate manipulation by females and a function for the female orgasm".Animal Behaviour.46 (5): 87, 23p.doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1272.S2CID53165064.
^Baker, Robin R.; Bellis, Mark A. (November 1993). "Human sperm competition: Ejaculate adjustment by males and the function of masturbation".Animal Behaviour.46 (5): 861, 25p.doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1271.S2CID53201940.
^Planned Parenthood Federation of America (March 2003). "Masturbation: From myth to sexual health".Contemporary Sexuality.37 (3): v.ISSN1094-5725.OCLC37229308.Finally, the American medical community pronounced masturbation as normal in 1972 American Medical Association publication,Human Sexuality (Rowan, 2000).
^McKinley Health Center (2 April 2008)."Masturbation: Questions and Answers"(PDF). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 28 December 2015. Retrieved9 June 2017.
^abStrassberg, Donald S.; Mackaronis, Julia E.; Perelman, Michael A. (2015)."Sexual dysfunctions". In Blaney, Paul H.; Krueger, Robert F.; Millon, Theodore (eds.).Oxford textbook of psychopathology (Third ed.). NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 441–442.ISBN978-0-19-981177-9.OCLC879552995.
^abCoon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O. (2014)."11. Gender and Sexuality".Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (14 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 363.ISBN978-1-305-54500-7.Is there any way that masturbation can cause harm? Seventy years ago, a child might have been told that masturbation would cause insanity, acne, sterility, or other such nonsense. "Self-abuse," as it was then called, has enjoyed a long and unfortunate history of religious and medical disapproval (Caroll, 2013). The modern view is that masturbation is a normal sexual behavior (Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). Enlightened parents are well aware of this fact. Still, many children are punished or made to feel guilty for touching their genitals. This is unfortunate because masturbation itself is harmless. Typically, its only negative effects are feelings of fear, guilt, or anxiety that arise from learning to think of masturbation as "bad" or "wrong." In an age when people are urged to practice "safer sex," masturbation remains the safest sex of all.
^abSigel, Lisa Z. (Summer 2004)."Masturbation: The History of the Great Terror. By Jean Stengers and Anne Van Neck. Translated by Kathryn Hoffmann (New York: Palgrave, 2001. ix plus 232 pp.)".Journal of Social History.37 (4):1065–1066.doi:10.1353/jsh.2004.0065.ISSN0022-4529.JSTOR3790078.S2CID141801392.Stengers and Van Neck follow the illness to its fairly abrupt demise; they liken the shift to finally seeing the emperor without clothes as doctors began to doubt masturbation as a cause of illness at the turn of the twentieth century. Once doubt set in, scientists began to accumulate statistics about the practice, finding that a large minority and then a large majority of people masturbated. The implications were clear: if most people masturbated and did not experience insanity, debility, and early death, then masturbation could not be held accountable to the etiology that had been assigned it. Masturbation quickly lost its hold over the medical community, and parents followed in making masturbation an ordinary part of first childhood and then human sexuality.
^abWood, Kate (March 2005). "Masturbation as a Means of Achieving Sexual Health by Walter Bockting; Eli Coleman".Culture, Health & Sexuality.7 (2):182–184.ISSN1369-1058.JSTOR4005453.In the collection's introductory chapter, Eli Coleman describes how Kinsey's research half a century ago was the first in a series of studies to challenge widely prevalent cultural myths relating to the 'harmful' effects of masturbation, revealing the practice to be both common and non-pathological. Subsequent research, outlined by Coleman in this chapter, has shown masturbation to be linked to healthy sexual development, sexual well-being in relationships, self-esteem and bodily integrity (an important sexual right). As such, the promotion and de-stigmatization of the practice continue to be important strategies within sexology for the achievement of healthy sexual development and well-being.
The collection concludes with two surveys among US college students. The first of these was based on limited quantitative questions relating to masturbation. The findings suggest that masturbation is not a substitute for sexual intercourse, as has often been posited, but is associated with increased sexual interest and greater number of partners. The second of these surveys asks whether masturbation could be useful in treating low sexual desire, by examining the relationship between masturbation, libido and sexual fantasy.
^George R. Brown, MD (July 2019)."Overview of Sexuality".Merck Manuals Professional Version. Archived fromthe original on 24 December 2015. Retrieved4 March 2020.
^The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (9 January 2014)."Masturbation".Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved11 September 2019.
^Wells, Ken R. (2005). "Masturbation". In Krapp, Kristine M.; Wilson, Jeffrey; Gale Group (eds.).The Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health: Infancy Through Adolescence. Gale virtual reference library. Vol. 3. Thomson Gale. p. 1148.ISBN978-0-7876-9427-2.
^Sutherland, Tammy (8 June 2015)."Six healthy reasons to masturbate".Best Health Magazine. Reader's Digest Magazines (Canada). Retrieved4 July 2013.Just as people fall into a deep sleep after sex with a partner, because blood pressure is lowered and relaxation is increased through the release of endorphins, masturbation is a good sleeping pill," says Golden. "It is relied on by many as a nightly occurrence.
^Wenner, Melinda (2006)."Why do guys get sleepy after sex?". NYU Journalism (New York University). Retrieved4 July 2013.The bottom line is this: there are many potential biochemical and evolutionary reasons for post-sex sleepiness, some direct and some indirect
^Graber, Benjamin; Balogh, Scott; Fitzpatrick, Denis; Hendricks, Shelton (June 1991). "Cardiovascular changes associated with sexual arousal and orgasm in men".Sexual Abuse.4 (2):151–165.doi:10.1007/BF00851611.ISSN1079-0632.S2CID198916412.
^El Atat, R.; Sfaxi, M.; Benslama, R.; Amine, D.; Ayed, M.; Mouelli, B.; Chebil, M.; Zmerli, S. (January 2008). "Fracture of the penis: management and long-term results of surgical treatment. Experience in 300 cases".Journal of Trauma.64 (1):121–125.doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e31803428b3.ISSN0022-5282.PMID18188109.
^Asgari, S.; Roshani, A.; Falahatkar, S.; Mokhtari, G.; Pourreza, F. (2007). "MP-21.01: Report on the early and late complications of 169 penile fractures".Urology.70 (3):160–161.doi:10.1016/j.urology.2007.06.119.
^Myers, John E. B. (2005).Myers on Evidence in Child, Domestic and Elder Abuse Cases, Volume 1. Aspen Publishers. p. 385.ISBN978-0-7355-5668-3. Retrieved27 August 2011.Jon Conte and his colleagues were interested to learn what factors are important to mental health professionals who regularly evaluate children for sexual abuse. The evaluators were asked to rank the importance of forty-one indicators of sexual abuse. The following indicators were thought important by more than ninety percent of evaluators: medical evidence of abuse, age-inappropriate sexual knowledge, sexualized play during the interview, precocious or seductive behavior, excessive masturbation, child's description is consistent over time, child's description reveals pressure or coercion.
^Coulborn Faller, Kathleen (2003).Understanding and Assessing Child Sexual Maltreatment.SAGE Publications. p. 39.ISBN978-0-7619-1996-4. Retrieved27 August 2011.Six different types of sexual behavior that signal possible sexual abuse will be described in this section: (a) excessive masturbation, (b) sexual interaction with peers, (c) sexual aggression toward younger or more naive children, (d) sexual accosting of older people or adults, (e) seductive behavior, and (f) promiscuity.
^abMarch, Jennifer R. (2014) [1996]."Satyrs and Silens".Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Oxford, England and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Oxbow Books. pp. 435–436.ISBN978-1-78297-635-6.
^SeeTraité contre l'impureté (1707) andThe Nature of Uncleanness (1708); Ian McCormick ed.Sexual Outcasts: Onanism. Vol. 4. (London and New York: Routledge, 2000). pp. 1-10.
^Buckle, Stephen (2013) [1991]."Natural Law". In Singer, Peter (ed.).A Companion to Ethics. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Wiley. pp. 171–174.ISBN978-1-118-72496-5. Retrieved2 January 2024.
^Dearborn, Lester W. (1961). "Autoerotism". In Ellis, Albert; Abarbanel, Albert (eds.).The encyclopedia of sexual behavior. New York: Hawthorn Books. p. 209.OCLC259681.
^Campbell, Meredith F.; Hartwell Harrison, J., eds. (1970). "The Male Genital Tract and the Female Urethra".Urology. Vol. 2 (3rd ed.). p. 1836.
^Zachar, Peter; Kendler, Kenneth S. (2023). "Masturbatory insanity: the history of an idea, revisited".Psychological Medicine.53 (9):3777–3782.doi:10.1017/S0033291723001435.ISSN0033-2917.
^Patton, Michael S. (June 1985). "Masturbation from Judaism to Victorianism".Journal of Religion and Health.24 (2):133–146.doi:10.1007/BF01532257.ISSN0022-4197.PMID24306073.S2CID39066052.Social change in attitudes toward masturbation has occurred at the professional level only since 1960 and at the popular level since 1970. [133] ... onanism and masturbation erroneously became synonymous... [134] ... there is no legislation in the Bible pertaining to masturbation. [135]
^abSzasz, Thomas S. (1974) [1973]."Sex".The Second Sin. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. p. 10.ISBN978-0-7100-7757-8. Retrieved30 June 2011.Masturbation: the primary sexual activity of mankind. In the nineteenth century it was a disease; in the twentieth, it's a cure.
^Laqueur, Thomas Walter (2003).Solitary Sex. New York: Zone Books. p. 78.ISBN1-890951-32-3.Less clinical, less overtly political, the solitary vice of the imagination and of fantasy that had so terrified Rousseau had been transformed into a virtue: self-pleasuring was the path to self-knowledge, self-discovery, and spiritual well-being.
^Porter, Robert S.; Kaplan, Justin L., eds. (2011)."Chapter 165. Sexuality and Sexual Disorders".The Merck Manual of Diagnosis & Therapy (19th ed.). Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., A Subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc.ISBN978-0-911910-19-3. Archived fromthe original on 20 February 2015. Retrieved19 June 2014.
^Shpancer, Noah (29 September 2010)."The Masturbation Gap. The pained history of self pleasure".Psychology Today. Retrieved27 June 2013.The publication of Kinsey's and Masters and Johnson's research revealed that masturbation was both common and harmless. Many studies have since confirmed this basic truth, revealing in addition that masturbation is neither a substitute for "real" sex nor a facilitator of risky sex.
^James, Lawrence (15 September 1997).The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. St. Martin's Griffin. p. 41.ISBN978-0-312-16985-5. The context is a discussion of the social habits of the early North American colonists.
^Johns, David Merritt (10 January 2012)."Free Willy".Slate.
^"Catechism of the Catholic Church". Archived fromthe original on 7 October 2007. Retrieved8 October 2007.Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action."The deliberate use of the sexual faculty, for whatever reason, outside of marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose". For here sexual pleasure is sought outside of "the sexual relationship which is demanded by the moral order and in which the total meaning of mutual self-giving and human procreation in the context of true love is achieved".
^Currey, Mason (30 April 2013)."Daily Rituals".Slate. Retrieved10 May 2013.
^Townshend, Pete (9 December 1971)."Meaty, Beaty, Big and Bouncy".Rolling Stone. Printed article. Archived fromthe original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved9 January 2009. "Merely a ditty about masturbation and the importance of it to a young man. I was really diggin' at my folks who, when catching me at it, would talk in loud voices in the corridor outside my room. 'Why can't he go with girls like other boys?'"
^Schwartz, S (1999). "Use of cyproheptadine to control urine spraying and masturbation in a cat".Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.214 (3):369–71.doi:10.2460/javma.1999.214.03.369.PMID10023399.
^Marchinton, R. Larry; Moore, W. Gerald (1971). "Auto-Erotic Behavior in Male White-Tailed Deer".Journal of Mammalogy.52 (3):616–617.doi:10.2307/1378600.JSTOR1378600.
Hurlbert, David Farley; Whittaker, Karen Elizabeth (1991). "The Role of Masturbation in Marital and Sexual Satisfaction: A Comparative Study of Female Masturbators and Nonmasturbators".Journal of Sex Education & Therapy.17 (4):272–282.doi:10.1080/01614576.1991.11074029.
Messer, Drew C.; Walker, C. Eugene (6 December 2012) [2003]."Masturbation"(PDF). In Ollendick, Thomas H.; Schroeder, Carolyn S. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Clinical Child and Pediatric Psychology. Boston, MA: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 359–360.ISBN978-1-4615-0107-7.OCLC913623298. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 4 April 2020.
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