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Fallen angels areangels who were expelled fromHeaven. The literal term "fallen angel" does not appear in anyAbrahamicreligious texts, but is used to describe angels cast out of heaven.[1] Such angels are often described as corrupting humanity by teaching forbidden knowledge or by tempting them intosin. Common motifs for their expulsion arelust,pride,envy, or an attempt to usurp divinity.
The earliest appearance of the concept of fallen angels may be found inCanaanite beliefs about thebənē hāʾĔlōhīm ('sons of God'), expelled from thedivine court.Hêlêl ben Šāḥar is thrown down from heaven for claiming equality withʻElyōn. Such stories were later collected in theHebrew Bible (ChristianOld Testament) and appear inpseudepigraphic Jewishapocalyptic literature. The concept of fallen angels derives from the assumption that the "sons of God" (בני האלוהים) mentioned inGenesis 6:1–4 or theBook of Enoch are angels. In theperiod immediately preceding the composition of the New Testament, some groups ofSecond Temple Judaism identified these "sons of God" as fallen angels.
During the lateSecond Temple period theNephilim were considered to be the monstrous offspring of fallen angels and human women. In such accounts, God sends theGreat Deluge to purge the world of these creatures; their bodies are destroyed, yet their souls survive, thereafter roaming the earth asdemons.Rabbinic Judaism andearly Christian authorities after the third century rejected the Enochian writings and the notion of an illicit union between angels and women.
Christian theology teaches that the sins of fallen angels occurbefore the beginning of human history. Accordingly, fallen angels became identified with those led byLucifer in rebellion against God, also equated with demons. The angelic origin of demons was important for Christianity insofar as Christian monotheism holds that evil is a corruption ofgoodness rather than an independent ontological principle. Conceptualizing fallen angels as purely spiritual beings, both good and evil angels were envisioned as rational beings without bodily limitations. Thus,Western Christian philosophy also implemented the fall of angels as athought experiment about how evil will could occur from within the mind without external influences and explores questions regardingmorality.
TheQuran refers to motifs reminiscent of fallen angels in earlierAbrahamic writings. However, the interpretation of these beings is disputed. Some Muslim exegetes regardSatan (Iblīs) to be an angel, while others do not.[2] According to the viewpoint ofIbn Abbas (619–687), Iblis was an angel created from fire (nār as-samūm), while according toHasan of Basra (642–728), he was the progenitor of thejinn.[3][4]Harut and Marut are a pair of angels mentioned in the Quran who are often said to have fallen to earth due to their negative remarks on humanity.
Fallen angels further appear throughout bothChristian andIslamicpopular culture, as inDante Alighieri'sDivine Comedy (1308–1320),John Milton'sParadise Lost, andHasan Karacadağ'sSemum (2008).
TheElohist sources speak ofbənē hāʾĔlōhīm ("sons of God"), manifestations of the Divine (ʾēl) and part of the heavenly court in theCanaanite pantheon.[5] According toGenesis 6:1–4 thebənē hāʾĔlōhīm descended to earth and mated with human women and beget theNephilim, followed byGod sending down a flood to clean the world from humans.[6]
A passage from theBook of Psalms, although at least five hundred years apart from the passage in Genesis, speaks about a similar heavenly court.[6] According to the text, God delivers judgement upon the gods by turning them into mortals.[6] Although the text does not imply that the gods fell from heaven, it parallels their descent from immortality to mortality.[6] Unlike Genesis, the text is silent about the sins of the gods.[6]
As evident from theHebrew Bible, in later Hebrew tradition, angels became identified with stars. As such, theBook of Isaiah, narrating the fall of a deity in the form of a celestial object, serves as a template for the later belief in fallen angels.[7] According to the Book of Isaiah,Hêlêl ben Šāḥar, son ofŠāḥar, known from theUgaritic poem ofShachar (dawn) and Shalim (dusk), claims equality with ʻElyōn and is then thrown down into the abyss as means of punishment.[8][9]
Fallen angels frequently appear inpseudepigraphicJewish apocalyptic religious texts dated to theSecond Temple period between 530 BC and 70 AD: in theBook of Enoch, theBook of Jubilees, and theQumranBook of Giants. Genesis 6:1–4 serves as the template for the story, but it is unclear if the same myth has existed in the Canaanite period.[10]
Some scholars consider it most likely that the Jewish tradition of fallen angels predates, even in written form, the composition of Gen 6:1–4.[11][12][a] In the Book of Enoch, theseWatchers "fell" after they became "enamored" with human women. TheSecond Book of Enoch (Slavonic Enoch) refers to the same beings of the (First) Book of Enoch, asGrigori in the Greek transcription.[14] Compared to the other Books of Enoch, fallen angels play a less significant role in3 Enoch. 3 Enoch mentions only three fallen angels called Azael, Azza and Uzza. Similar to The first Book of Enoch, they taught sorcery on earth, causing corruption.[15] Unlike the first Book of Enoch, there is no mention of the reason for their fall and, according to 3 Enoch 4.6, they also later appear in heaven objecting to the presence of Enoch.
According to 1 Enoch 7.2, the Watchers become "enamoured" with human women[16] and have intercourse with them. The offspring of these unions, and the knowledge they were giving, corrupt human beings and the earth (1 Enoch 10.11–12).[16] Eminent among these angels areSamyaza andAzazel. Like many other fallen angels mentioned in 1 Enoch 8.1–9, Azazel introduces men to "forbidden arts", and it is Azazel who is rebuked byEnoch himself for illicit instruction, as stated in 1 Enoch 13.1.[17] According to 1 Enoch 10.6, God sends the archangelRaphael to chain Azazel in the desertDudael as punishment. Further, Azazel is blamed for the corruption of earth:
1 Enoch 10:12: "All the earth has been corrupted by the effects of the teaching of Azazyel. To him therefore ascribe the whole crime."
Anetiological interpretation of 1 Enoch deals with the origin of evil. By shifting the origin of mankind's sin and their misdeeds to illicit angel instruction, evil is attributed to something supernatural from without. This motif, in 1 Enoch, differs from that of later Jewish and Christiantheology; in the latter evil is something from within.[18] According to aparadigmatic interpretation, 1 Enoch might deal with illicit marriages between priests and women. As evident fromLeviticus 21:1–15, priests were prohibited to marry impure women. Accordingly, the fallen angels in 1 Enoch are the priests counterpart, who defile themselves by marriage. Just like the angels are expelled from heaven, the priests are excluded from their service at the altar. Unlike most otherapocalyptic writings, 1 Enoch reflects a growing dissatisfaction with the priestly establishments in Jerusalem in the 3rd century BC. The paradigmatic interpretation parallels theAdamic myth in regard of the origin of evil: In both cases, transcending one's own limitations inherent in their own nature causes their fall. This contrasts the etiological interpretation, which implies another power besides God, in heaven. The latter solution therefore poorly fits intomonotheistic thought.[19] Otherwise, the introduction to illicit knowledge might reflect a rejection of foreignHellenistic culture. Accordingly, the fallen angels represent creatures ofGreek mythology, which introduced forbidden arts, used by Hellenistic kings and generals, resulting in oppression of Jews.[20]
The concept of fallen angels is also in theSecond Book of Enoch. It tells aboutEnoch's ascent through the layers of heaven. During his journey, he encounters fallen angels imprisoned in the2nd heaven. At first, he decides to pray for them, but refuses to do so, since he himself as merely human, would not be worthy to pray for angels. In the 5th heaven however, he meets other rebellious angels, here calledGrigori, remaining in grief, not joining the heavenly hosts in song. Enoch tries to cheer them up by telling about his prayers for their fellow angels and thereupon they join the heavenly liturgy.[21]
Strikingly, the text refers to the leader of the Grigori as Satanail and not as Azael or Shemyaza, as in the other Books of Enoch.[22] But the Grigori are identified with the Watchers of 1 Enoch.[23][24]
The narration of the Grigori in 2 Enoch 18:1–7, who went down on to earth, married women and "befouled the earth with their deeds", resulting in their confinement under the earth, shows that the author of 2 Enoch knew about the stories in 1 Enoch.[22] The longerrecension of 2 Enoch, chapter 29 refers to angels who were "thrown out from the height" when their leader tried to become equal in rank with the Lord's power (2 Enoch 29:1–4), an idea probably taken fromAncient Canaanite religion aboutAttar, trying to rule the throne ofBaal.[25]
TheBook of Jubilees, an ancient Jewish religious work, accepted as canonical by theEthiopian Orthodox Church andBeta Israel, refers to the Watchers, who are among the angels created on the first day.[26][27] However, unlike the (first) Book of Enoch, the Watchers are commanded by God to descend to earth and to instruct humanity.[28][29] It is only after they copulate with human women that they transgress the laws of God.[30] These illicit unions result in demonic offspring, who battle each other until they die, while the Watchers are bound in the depths of the earth as punishment.[31] In Jubilees 10:1, another angel calledMastema appears as the leader of the evil spirits.[30] He asks God to spare some of the demons, so he might use their aid to lead humankind into sin. Afterwards, he becomes their leader:[30]
Lord, Creator, let some of them remain before me, and let them harken to my voice, and do all that I shall say unto them; for if some of them are not left to me, I shall not be able to execute the power of my will on the sons of men; for these are for corruption and leading astray before my judgment, for great is the wickedness of the sons of men. (10:8)
Both the (first) Book of Enoch and the Book of Jubilees include the motif of angels introducing evil to humans. However, unlike the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees does not hold that evil was caused by the fall of angels in the first place, although their introduction to sin is affirmed. Further, while the fallen angels in the Book of Enoch are acting against God's will, the fallen angels and demons in the Book of Jubilees seem to have no power independent from God but only act within his power.[32]
Although the concept of fallen angels developed from Jewish texts written during theSecond Temple period, rabbis from the second century onward turned against the Enochian writings, probably in order to prevent fellow Jews from worship and veneration of angels. Thus, while many angels were individualized and sometimes venerated during the Second Temple period, the status of angels was degraded to a class of creatures on the same level of humans, thereby emphasizing the omnipresence ofGod. The 2nd-century rabbiShimon bar Yochai cursed everyone who explained the term "sons of God" as angels. He stated sons of God were actually sons of judges or sons of nobles. Evil was no longer attributed to heavenly forces, now it was dealt as an "evil inclination" (yetzer hara) within humans.[33] In someMidrashic works, the "evil inclination" is attributed toSamael, who is in charge of severalsatans in order to test humanity.[34][35] Nevertheless, these angels are still subordinate to God; the reacceptance of rebel angels in Midrashic discourse was posterior and probably influenced by the role of fallen angels in Islamic and Christian lore.[36]
The idea of rebel angels in Judaism reappears in theAggadic-Midrashic workPirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, which shows not one, but two falls of angels. The first one is attributed to Samael, who refuses to worshipAdam and objects to God favoring Adam over the angels, ultimately descending onto Adam and Eve to tempt them intosin. This seems rooted in the motif of the fall ofIblis in theQuran and the fall ofSatan in theCave of Treasures.[37] The second fall echoes the Enochian narratives. Again, the "sons of God" mentioned in Gen 6:1–4 are depicted as angels. During their fall, their "strength and stature became like the sons of man" and again, they give existence to the giants by intercourse with human women.[37]
Although not strictly speakingfallen, evil angels reappear inKabbalah. Some of them are named after angels taken from the Enochian writings, such as Samael.[38] According to theZohar, just as angels can be created by virtue, evil angels are an incarnation of human vices, which derive from theqlippoth, the representation of impure forces.[39]
However, the Zohar also recalls a narration of two angels in a fallen state, calledAza andAzael. These angels are cast down from the heaven after mistrusting Adam for his inclination towards sin.[40] Once on Earth, they complete the Enochian narrative by teaching magic to humans and producing offspring with them, as well as consorting withLilith (hailed as "the sinner"). In the narrative, the Zohar affirms but simultaneously prohibits magical practices.[41] As a punishment, God puts the angels in chains, but they still copulate with the demonessNaamah, who gives birth to demons, evil spirits and witches.[40]
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Luke 10:18 refers to "Satan falling from heaven" and Matthew 25:41 mentions "the Devil and his angels", who will be thrown intoHell. AllSynoptic Gospels identify Satan as the leader of demons.[42]Paul the Apostle (c. 5 – c. 64 or 67) states in 1 Corinthians 6:3 that there are angels who will be judged, implying the existence of wicked angels.[42] 2 Peter 2:4 and Jude 1:6 referparaenetically to angels who have sinned against God and await punishment onJudgement Day.[43] TheBook of Revelation, chapter 12, speaks of Satan as the "Great Red Dragon" whose "tail swept a third part of the stars of heaven and cast them to the earth".[44] In verses 7–9, Satan is defeated in theWar in Heaven againstMichael and his angels: "the great dragon was thrown down, thatancient serpent who is calledthe Devil andSatan, the deceiver of the whole world—he was thrown down to the earth and his angels were thrown down with him".[45] Nowhere within theNew Testament are fallen angels identified withdemons,[42] but by combining the references to Satan, demons, and angels,early Christian exegetes equated fallen angels with demons, for which Satan was regarded as the leader.[42][46]
TheFirst Epistle to the Corinthians in 11:10, according to the early Church FatherTertullian, references fallen angels; Tertullian taught that protection from the lust of the fallen angels was the reason for theApostle Paul'sdirective to Christian women to wear a headcovering (veil).[47] Tertullian referenced a woman who was touched on the neck by a fallen angel "who found her to be a temptation".[48]
Origen and other early Christian writers linked the fallen morning star ofIsaiah 14:12 of theOld Testament to Jesus' statement in Luke 10:18 that he "saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven", as well as a passage about the fall of Satan in Revelation 12:8–9.[49] The Latin wordlucifer, as introduced in the late 4th-century ADVulgate, gave rise to the name for a fallen angel.[50]
Christian tradition has associated Satan not only with the image of the fallen "morning star" in Isaiah 14:12, but also with the denouncing in Ezekiel 28:11–19 of theKing of Tyre, who is spoken of as having been a "cherub". TheChurch Fathers saw these two passages as in some ways parallel, an interpretation also testified in apocryphal andpseudepigraphic works.[51] However, "no modern evangelical commentary on Isaiah or Ezekiel sees Isaiah 14 or Ezekiel 28 as providing information about the fall of Satan".[52]
During the period immediately before therise of Christianity, the intercourse between the Watchers and human women was often seen as the first fall of the angels.[53] Christianity stuck to the Enochian writings at least until the third century.[54] ManyChurch Fathers such asIrenaeus,Justin Martyr,Clement of Alexandria, andLactantius[55][56] accepted the association of the angelic descent to the sons of God passage in Genesis 6:1–4.[55] However, someChristian ascetics, such asOrigen (c. 184 – c. 253 AD),[57] rejected this interpretation. According to theChurch Fathers who rejected the doctrine by Origen, these angels were guilty of having transgressed the limits of their nature and of desiring to leave their heavenly abode to experience sensual experiences.[58] Irenaeus referred to fallen angels asapostates, who will be punished by an everlasting fire. Justin Martyr (c. 100 – c. 165) identified pagan deities as fallen angels or their demonic offspring in disguise. Justin also held them responsible for Christian persecution during the first centuries.[59]Tertullian and Origen also referred to fallen angels as teachers ofastrology.[60]
The Babylonian king, who is described as a fallen "morning star" in Isaiah 14:1–17, was probably the first time identified with a fallen angel by Origen.[61][62] This description was interpreted typologically both as an angel and a human king. The image of the fallen morning star or angel was thereby applied to Satan by early Christian writers,[63][64] following the equation of Lucifer to Satan in the pre-Christian century.[65]
The subject of fallen angels is covered in a number ofcatechisms of theRoman Catholic Church, includingRev. George Hay's in which he answers the questionWhat was the sin by which they fell?: "It was pride, arising from the great beauty and sublime graces which God had bestowed upon them. For, seeing themselves such glorious beings, they fell in love with themselves, and, forgetting the God that made them, wished to be on an equality with their Creator." The consequence of this fall being that, "they were immediately deprived of all their supernatural graces and heavenly beauty: they were changed from glorious angels into hideous devils; they were banished out of heaven, and condemned to the torments of hell, which was prepared to receive them."[66]
In terms of the history of fallen angel theology it is thought to be rooted in Enochian literature, which Christians began to reject by the 3rd century. The sons of God came to be identified merely with righteous men, more precisely with descendants ofSeth who had been seduced by women descended fromCain. The cause of evil was shifted from thesuperior powers of angels, to humans themselves, and to the very beginning of history; the expulsion of Satan and his angels on the one hand and the original sin of humans on the other hand.[54][67] However, the Book of Watchers, which identified the sons of God with fallen angels, was not rejected bySyriac Christians or theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[68]Augustine of Hippo's workCivitas Dei (5th century) became the major opinion ofWestern demonology and for theCatholic Church.[69] He rejected the Enochian writings and stated that the sole origin of fallen angels was the rebellion of Satan.[70][71] As a result, fallen angels came to be equated with demons and depicted as non-sexual spiritual entities.[72] The exact nature of their spiritual bodies became another topic of dispute during the Middle Ages.[69] Augustine based his descriptions of demons on his perception of theGreekdaimon.[69] The Daimon was thought to be a spiritual being, composed of ethereal matter, a notion also used for fallen angels by Augustine.[73] However, these angels received their ethereal body only after their fall.[73] Later scholars tried to explain the details of their spiritual nature, asserting that the ethereal body is a mixture of fire and air, but that they are still composed of material elements. Others denied any physical relation to material elements, depicting the fallen angels as purely spiritual entities.[74] But even those who believed the fallen angels had ethereal bodies did not believe that they could produce any offspring.[75][76]
Augustine, in hisCivitas Dei describes two cities (Civitates) distinct from each other and opposed to each other like light and darkness.[77] Theearthly city is caused by the act of rebellion of the fallen angels and is inhabited by wicked men and demons (fallen angels) led by Satan. On the other hand, theheavenly city is inhabited by righteous men and the angels led by God.[77] Although, hisontological division into two different kingdoms shows resemblance ofManicheandualism, Augustine differs in regard of the origin and power of evil. In Augustine works, evil originates fromfree will. Augustine always emphasized the sovereignty of God over the fallen angels.[78] Accordingly, the inhabitants of the earthly city can only operate within their God-given framework.[71] The rebellion of angels is also a result of the God-given freedom of choice. The obedient angels are endowed withgrace, giving them a deeper understanding of God's nature and the order of the cosmos. Illuminated by God-given grace, they became incapable of feeling any desire for sin. The other angels, however, are not blessed with grace, thus they remain capable of sin. After these angels decide to sin, they fall from heaven and become demons.[79] In Augustine's view of angels, they cannot be guilty of carnal desires since they lack flesh, but they can be guilty of sins that are rooted in spirit and intellect such aspride andenvy.[80] However, after they have made their decision to rebel against God, they cannot turn back.[81][82] TheCatechism of the Catholic Church understands the fall of angels as radical and irrevocable rejection of God and his reign by some angels who, though created as good beings,freely chose evil, their sin being unforgivable because of the irrevocable character of their choice, not because of any defect in infinite divine mercy.[83] Present-day Catholicism rejectsApocatastasis, the reconciliation with God suggested by the Church Father Origen.[84]
Like Roman Catholicism,Eastern Orthodox Christianity shares the basic belief in fallen angels as spiritual beings who rebel against God. Unlike Roman Catholicism, however, there is no established doctrine about the exact nature of fallen angels, but Eastern Orthodox Christianity unanimously agrees that the power of fallen angels is always inferior to God. Therefore, belief in fallen angels can always be assimilated with local lore, as long it does not break basic principles and is in line with the Bible.[85] Historically, some Eastern Orthodox theologians even tend to suggest that fallen angelscould be rehabilitated in theworld to come.[86] Fallen angels, just like angels, play a significant role in the spiritual life of believers. As in Roman Catholicism, fallen angels are believed totempt and incite people intosin, butmental illness is also linked to the influence of fallen angels.[87] Those who have reached an advanced degree ofspirituality are even thought to be able to envision them.[87]Rituals andsacraments performed byEastern Orthodox priests are thought to weaken such demonic influences.[88]
Unlike most other Christian churches, theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church accepts 1 Enoch and theBook of Jubilees as canonical.[89] As a result, the Church believes that human sin does not originate in Adam's transgression alone, but also from Satan and other fallen angels. Together with demons, they continue to cause sin and corruption on earth.[90]
Like Roman Catholicism,Protestantism continues with the concept of fallen angels as spiritual entities unrelated to flesh,[72] but it rejects theangelology anddemonology established by the Roman Catholic Church.Martin Luther's (1483–1546)Sermons of the Angels merely recount the exploits of the fallen angels, and does not deal with an angelic hierarchy.[91] Satan and his fallen angels are believed to be responsible for some misfortune in the world, but Luther always believed that the power of the good angels exceeds those of the fallen ones.[92] The Italian Protestant theologianGirolamo Zanchi (1516–1590) offered further explanations for the reason behind the fall of the angels. According to Zanchi, the angels rebelled when theincarnation of Jesus Christ as theSon of God was revealed to them in incomplete form.[72] WhileMainline Protestants are much less concerned with the cause of angelic fall, arguing that it is neither useful nor necessary to know, other Protestant churches do have fallen angels as more of a focus.[72]
Monotheism parted fromcosmological dualism by insisting on the good origin of all things.[93] This contrasts with alternative views, such asManichaeism, proposingabsolute evil as an entirely separate ontological principle.[94][95] With the proposition that there is only one ultimate principle, Christian philosophy threatened the hypothesis that God can only cause good and needed to explain the origins of moral evil.
Thus, inWestern Christian philosophy the fall of angels served as athought experiment on how moral evil originates. Angels, as purely spiritual beings, were an example on how someone chooses evil despite optimal psychological and cognitive conditions.[96] While according to many theories ofAncient Greek philosophy hold an intellectualist account of morality (i.e. that evil derives from a impeded intellectual cognition) the sin of angels, who are purely spiritual beings, needed an alterantive explanation.[97]
The voluntarist account asserts that angels sinned by their own volution.[98] While the intellectualists need to explain how a spiritual being can suffer from cognitive deficiencies, voluntarists need to explain how beings under the same psychological conditions make different moral choices.
Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225 – 7 March 1274), following an intellectualist approach, argued that the mind cannot comprehend all thoughts at once.[99] As such, angels only consider on whatever they focus on, but if they do not focus on the highest good, they commit evil actions.Henry of Ghent (c. 1217 – 29 June 1293) asserts that evil volition must precede mistaken consideration. Defective reasoning is described as the result of evil will.[100]
In the discussion concerningtheodicy, the question of how evil can exist simultaneously with the existence of an all-powerful and all-good God, fallen angels are also proposed as an explanation fornatural evil. The theory proposes that fallen angels can influence nature and cause suffering through natural disasters. Combined with the free-will of angels, natural disasters too may result from evil volition.[101]
In Christian folklore tales about encounters between men and spirits, the spirits were often explained as fallen angels. They would have been cast out of heaven, damned to roam the world as demons, but were not so evil that they were sentenced to hell, like Lucifer and his devils. Yet they were still not as good to remain in heaven.[102] Therefore, they would live between heaven and hell among humans in liminal spaces.
Caesarius of Heisterbach's (c. 1180 – c. 1240) asserted that not all fallen angels are equally bad. Some fallen angels would be banished for not actively defending God against Lucifer, but since they did not side with the devils, they would not be sentenced to hell. They remain loyal to God on earth, do good deeds, and bearing some resemblances to saints, as seen in theDialogus Miraculorum, in which a knight is guided by a fallen angel to lead him back on the path of piety.[103] In another tale, a neutral fallen angel became an assistant of a noble knight. However, when the knight learned that his best assistant was actually a demon, he dismissed him. When the knight wants to pay the demon for his service, the demon asserted that the knight should spend the money on a new bell for the church, instead.[103]
According toThe Brendan Voyage, during the Medieval Age, Brendan meets a group of angels referred to as "wandering spirits". On holy days, they were embodied as white birds, symbols usually used for purity and the holy spirit. In later versions, such as the 15th Century Dutch and German variant, the fallen angels are much more depicted as akin to grotesque demons. Although they would not have supported Lucifer in his evil schemes, they would have been passive and not fighting for good, thus turned into animal-like creatures cast out of heaven.
Such earthly fallen angels were used as a possible origin offairies in Irish and Scandinavian folk-tales. Depending on the place they fell, they will remain as spirits of the specific element, but are usually benevolent and harmless.[104] If such fairies were identified with the Biblical fallen angels, their salvation after Judgement Day was usually denied, since the fallen angels could not return to heaven.[105] LaterProtestant thinkers increasingly dismissed belief in fairies and neutral angels as part of either fairy-tales or a delusion cast by Satan.[106]
Although sometimes denied, fallen angels were widely accepted in ClassicalIslam.[b][c] The three most famous in Islam being mentioned in theQuran: Iblis, Harut and Marut.[109] Objection towards the concept of fallen angels, however, is attested as early as to the influentialIslamic asceticHasan of Basra (642–728), who denied the possibility of angels sinning.[d] Interpretations deriving from thecompanions of Muhammad, such asIbn Abbas (619–687) andAbd Allah ibn Mas'ud (594–653) on the other hand legitimized the concept of fallible angels.[111] MostSunni scholars adhere to the latter opinion.[112]
Opposition to the concept of the fallen angel is mostly found among theQadariyah and mostMu'tazilites.[113] ManySalafis also agree with this view.[114] Those who oppose angelic fallibility refer to Surahat-Tahrim (66:6)[115] in favor of their position:
O believers! Protect yourselves and your families from a Fire whose fuel is people and stones, overseen by formidable and severe angels, who never disobey whatever Allah orders—always doing as commanded.
Those who are in support of the concept of fallen angels (includingTabari,Suyuti,al-Nasafi, and al-Māturīdī) refer toal-Anbiya (21:29) stating that angels would be punished for sins and arguing that, if angels could not sin, they would not be warned to refrain from committing them:[116][117]
Whoever of them were to say, "I am a god besides Him", they would be rewarded with Hell by Us [...]
It has been argued, even if fallen angels are considered, they are conceptually different from the fallen angels in Christianity, since they remain at the service of God and do not become God's enemies.[118] It has been stated that "(...) according to Christianity, the devils are fallen angels who renounced their loyalty to God, in Islam it is God who dismissed the fallen angels".[2] Unlike Christian tradition, fallen angels may return to their former state in the angelic hierarchy, if forgiven.[119]
Besides the Quran, other Islamic works allude to fallen angels. According to theIsma'ilism workUmm al-Kitāb,ʿAzāzīl, is the first creation of God. Because God gifted him the ability of creation, he claims divinity and is thrown into lower celestial spheres until he ends up on earth.[120] In aShia narrative attrbitued toJa'far al-Sadiq (700 or 702–765),Idris (Enoch) meets an angel, which the wrath ofGod falls upon, and his wings and hair are cut off; after Idris prays for him to God, his wings and hair are restored.[121] In a similar story, acherub calledFuṭrus (فطرس) was cast out from heaven and fell to the earth, but is restored after he touchesal-Husayn's cradle.[122] The idea that fallen angels can be forgiven through means of intercession also appears in the legendary tales ofMuslim saints.[123]
Some recent non-Islamic scholars suggestUzair, who is according to Surah 9:30 called ason of God by Jews, originally referred to a fallen angel.[124] While exegetes almost unanimously identified Uzair asEzra,[e] there is no historical evidence that the Jews called himson of God. Thus, the Quran may refer not to the earthly Ezra, but to the heavenly Ezra, identifying him with the heavenly Enoch, who in turn became identified with the angelMetatron (also calledlesser YHWH) inMerkabah mysticism.[126]
The Quran repeatedly tells about the fall ofIblīs, whose story is referred to throughout the Quran.Iblīs refuses to bow beforeAdam, whereupon he is banished from heaven.[127] In Surah 15:36,Iblīs requests God to tempt humans into sin to prove their unworthiness, and God complies. Surah 38:82 reiterates thatIblīs'intrigues to lead humans astray are permitted by God's power.[128] However, as mentioned in Surah 17:65,Iblīs' attempts to mislead God's servants are destined to fail.[128]
The Quranic episode ofIblīs parallels the wicked angel in the earlierBooks of Jubilees: LikeIblīs,Mastema requests God's permission to tempt humanity, and both are limited in their power, that is, not able to deceive God's servants.[129] However, the motif ofIblīs' disobedience derives not from the Watcher mythology, but can be traced back to theCave of Treasures, a work that probably holds the standard explanation inProto-orthodox Christianity for the angelic fall of Satan:[130] Satan refuses to prostrate himself before Adam, because he is "fire and spirit" and thereupon Satan is banished from heaven.[131][130] Unlike the majority opinion in later Christianity, the idea thatIblīs attempts to usurp the throne of God is alien to Islam and due to its strict monotheism unthinkable.[132]
According to anarration (Qaṣaṣ) byIbn Abbas (619–687), before the creation ofAdam,angels (malāʾikah) battled with thejinn. After the jinn were defeated and God (Allah) announces to create humans as a successor, the angels protest, arguing they cause corruptions as the jinn did before.Iblīs, their leader, views humans as inferior beings, which leads to his refusal mentioned in the Quran.[2] Those angels who joinedIblīs became the opponents of mankind.[133][f] The story is used to complement the events in Surah 2:30-34.[130]
The command to bow down before Adam is often seen as God testing the angels.Maqdisi (965/966CE) writes:
The meaning is that Allah knows that there are those among the angels who would cause rebellion and corruption and bloodshed, but the angels do not know this. Allah said to the angels: "See, I am going to create mankind from clay; so when I have formed him and breathed into him some of My spirit, fall down to him in obeisance." (Q, 28:72-72) The angels listened to His words and obeyed His voice and complied, all of theme exceptIblīs, the enemy of Allah. . . . When Allah had created Adam and breated His spirit into him, He ordered the angels to bow down to him in order to test them, and especially so as to testIblīs. This bowing was a greeting (tahiyya) and not an expression of worship ('‘ibādah) to him. Others say that they were ordered to bow to Adam as the Muslim bows to the qibla, and they all bowed down, as theQurʾān tells us, exceptIblīs.[135]
Harut and Marut are a pair of angels mentioned in Surah 2:102 teaching magic. The namesHarut andMarut are ofZoroastrian origin and derived from twoAmesha Spentas calledHaurvatat andAmeretat.[136] Although the Quran gave these fallen angels Iranian names,mufassirs recognized them as from theBook of Watchers. In accordance with3 Enoch,al-Kalbi (737 AD – 819 AD) named three angels descending to earth, and he even gave them their Enochian names. He explained that one of them returned to heaven and the other two changed their names to Harut and Marut.[137]
Although the Quran does not call this pair of angelsfallen explicitly, the context assumes this to be true.[138] The story bears resemblance to theWatchers,[138] mentioned in Second Temple traditions and reflects an early Christian belief.[138]Unlike in the Book of Watchers and Christian tradition, the story is not about angelic revolt or original sin, but the struggle of human beings.[138] Unlike the Watchers, Harut and Marut instruct humans to witchcraft by God's command,[139] just asIblīs tempts humans only by God's permission.[140] According to Muslim belief, the pair of angels expressed anger over the sinful nature of humans. Whereupon God challanged them to descend to earth and to do better. On earth, they committed various sins and were not allowed to return to heaven.[135]
Those who deny fallen angels argue that Harut and Marut were merely two men, but credited with an angelic status due to their righteousness.[141] This position found influential support among modern scholars, including al-Nibrawi (d. 1842),Muhammad Taqi ad-Din al-Hilali (d. 1987), andMuhammad Nasib al-Rifa (1915–1992) in his abridged commentary ofIbn Kathir.[142]
InBlavatsky's work "Secret Doctrine" the author combines many systems of thought such as parts ofgnosticism, modernoccultism andEastern religions to create her own view of angels. In her system the Devil is the dark side of Jehovah and without this dark side Jehovah could not exist and shine so brightly. Jehovah created the earth through the angels, which are separated into three groups: the Self-created, the Self-existent, and the Fire-angels. The first two groups followed Jehovah's command but the third group, the Fire-angels rebelled and gave humans knowledge which in turn provided them with freedom. Mankind owes their freedom in Blavatsky's view to the Devil, who provided them with their wills and intellect.[143]
In theDivine Comedy (1308–1320) byDante Alighieri, fallen angels guard theCity of Dis surrounding the lower circles of hell. They mark a transition: while in previous circles, the sinners are condemned for sins they just could not resist, later on, the circles of hell are filled with sinners who deliberately rebel against God, such as fallen angels orChristian heretics.[144]
InJohn Milton's 17th-century epic poemParadise Lost, both obedient and fallen angels play an important role. They appear as rational individuals:[145] their personality is similar to that of humans.[146] The fallen angels are named after entities from both Christian andPagan mythology, such asMoloch,Chemosh,Dagon,Belial,Beelzebub and Satan himself.[147] Following the canonical Christian narrative, Satan convinces other angels to live free from the laws of God, thereupon they are cast out of heaven.[146] The epic poem starts with the fallen angels in hell. The first portrayal of God in the book is given by fallen angels, who describe him as a questionable tyrant and blame him for their fall.[148] Outcast from heaven, the fallen angels establish their own kingdom in the depths of hell, with a capital calledPandæmonium. Unlike most earlier Christian representations of hell, it is not the primary place for God to torture the sinners, but the fallen angels' own kingdom. The fallen angels even build a palace, play music and freely debate. Nevertheless, without divine guidance, the fallen angels themselves turn hell into a place of suffering.[149]
The idea of fallen angels plays a significant role in the various poems ofAlfred de Vigny. InLe Déluge (1823),[150] the son of an angel and a mortal woman learns from the stars about the great deluge. He seeks refuge with his beloved onMount Ararat, hoping that his angelic father will save them. But since he does not appear, they are caught by the flood.Éloa (1824) is about a female angel created by the tears of Jesus. She hears about a male angel, expelled from heaven, whereupon she seeks to comfort him, but goes to perdition as a consequence.[151]
TheTurkishhorror filmSemum (2008), produced and directed byHasan Karacadağ, is about ashayṭān who has been summoned from hell to torment a woman named Canan. The movie is based on the Ibn Abbas interpretation of the Quran and depicts the devil as a fallen angel who seeks revenge on humans for being abandoned by God (Allah). The devil acceptsʿAzāzīl as his new deity, who is praised as the ruler of hell and supporting his minions against God's new creation (humans). However, at the end, the movie affirms in accordance with Islamic teachings, thatʿAzāzīl has no real power but only to seduce people to follow him. When theshayṭān battles a human priest (Hoca) in hell, it is God who intervenes on behalf of humanity whileʿAzāzīl has forsaken his servant. By that, the movie further rejects dualism in favor of Islamictawḥīd, emphazising that even hell is under God's control.[2]
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