Falangism inLatin America has been a feature of political life since the 1930s as movements looked to thenational syndicalistclerical fascism of theSpanish state and sought to apply it to other Spanish-speaking countries. From the mid-1930s, theFalange Exterior, effectively an overseas version of theSpanish Falange, was active throughout Latin America in order to drum up support among Hispanic communities.[1] However, the ideas would soon permeate into indigenous political groups. The term "Falangism" should not be applied to themilitary dictatorships of such figures asAlfredo Stroessner,Augusto Pinochet andRafael Trujillo because while these individuals often enjoyed close relations toFrancisco Franco's Spain, their military nature and frequent lack of commitment to national syndicalism and thecorporate state mean that they should not be classed as Falangist (although individuals within each regime may have been predisposed towards the ideology). The phenomenon can be seen in a number of movements both past and present.
The popularity of Falangism in Latin America declined after the defeat ofFascism and theAxis powers inWorld War II.
Juan Perón built his power base on his alliance withtrade unions in Argentina, many of whom supportedsyndicalism whilst his government would go on to maintain links with Franco. However, Falangism in the country was largely ill at ease withPeronism until the emergence of theTacuara Nationalist Movement in the 1960s. This violent movement looked toJosé Antonio Primo de Rivera for its inspiration[2] and was also inspired by the works ofJulio Meinvielle, himself a strong admirer of Falangism.[3]
Elsewhere, bothManuel Gálvez andJuan Carulla endorsed "hispanidad" and in doing so expressed strong admiration for Falangism, especially Carulla.[4]
Formed in 1937, theBolivian Socialist Falange (Falange Socialista Boliviana or FSB) ofÓscar Únzaga gained a strong following amongst former landowners by offering a platform strongly influenced by Franco andBenito Mussolini. The FSB became effective opposition to theRevolutionary Nationalist Movement government although their fortunes would later decline and they were ultimately absorbed into theNationalist Democratic Action.
A breakaway group known as theMovimiento al Socialismo – Unzaguista emerged in 1987 under David Añez Pedraza. Representing a more left-wing take on Bolivian Falangism, it became moribund before the title, rather than ideology, was effectively appropriated byEvo Morales in 1999 to form the basis of his leftistMovement for Socialism.[5]
A revivalist group,Frente Socialista de Naciones Bolivianas, was formed by Horacio Poppe in 2000 and they have since emerged as theFalange Neounzaguista, otherwise known as the "Whiteshirts". Taking their name from Óscar Únzaga, they have led a recruitment drive in Bolivian universities, although they remain a minor force.[5]
In 1935, a group of younger social Christians split from theConservative Party to form theFalange Nacional. Despite its name, this group was largely made up ofprogressive andreformist[6] Catholics and bore little resemblance to Spanish Falangism. In its early years, it imitated elements of fascist movements with some of its members wearing uniforms and undergoing paramilitary training.[7] With its progressive economic program (creating an alternative to capitalism, "redeeming" the proletariat), it was in open conflict with the Catholic high clergy[8] who accused it of disrespecting the Church's leadership and siding with communists.[9] Despite its aim to be acentrist alternative to theleft and theright and relatively great public attention, it never received more than 4 percent of the votes.[8] Later, it supported the leftist administration ofJuan Antonio Ríos (1942–1946) and in 1957 was one of the founding groups of theChristian Democrat Party of Chile.[10] One of its former members,Eduardo Frei Montalva, becamePresident of Chile in 1964. Other notable members includeRadomiro Tomic andBernardo Leighton.[11]
A more avowedly Falangist group,Movimiento Revolucionario Nacional Sindicalista (Revolutionary National Syndicalist Movement, MRNS), would appear in 1952, although it did not achieve the influence of theFalange Nacional.[12] The group became more prominent during the 1970s in the development of Chilean nationalist thought through the publication ofForja. The movement supported themilitary dictatorship ofAugusto Pinochet and was part of theNational Secretariat of Trade Unions, an organization created by the regime of Augusto Pinochet and whose leadership was assumed by the MRNS and members of the recently self-dissolvedFatherland and Liberty Party.[13][14] The movement eventually dissolved sometime in the 1980s.
The name has proven durable however as it still organised into the 21st century, albeit on a very minor level.[15] They also organise a youth movement,Guardia Revolucionaria Nacionalsindicalista.[16]
During the 1930s, futurePresident of ColombiaLaureano Gómez became an enthusiastic supporter of Falangism, although this fervour had died down somewhat by the time he took power in 1950. Nevertheless, a Falangist group was active in the country during the 1940s.[17]
A current group exists, theFalange Nacional Patriótica de Colombia, which claims to be active in theNational University of Colombia. Recently, they changed their name toFrente Obrero Social Patriota.[18]
President of Costa RicaTeodoro Picado Michalski, who governed between 1944 and 1948, was an admirer of Falangism andSomocismo, and even defendedFrancisco Franco in theUnited Nations.[19] However, even after the end of the Second World War, the National Delegation of the Falangist Foreign Service recounted Costa Rica as one of the Hispanic countries where there was still an active circle of Falangists.[20] Likewise, Falangist literature was published in Costa Rica between 1937 and 1946 in newspapers likeEl Nacionalista andLa gloria de España, while two hours a week of propaganda were broadcast in Costa Rica on the radio programsLa España y el Mundo.[20]
A minor Cuban Falangist movement existed from 1936 to 1940 under Antonio Avendaño and Alfonso Serrano Vilariño. This group was effectively ended by a law which barred political groups from making specific reference to the policies of foreign groups.[18]
Although the government ofFulgencio Batista maintained good relations with Franco, it was not Falangist and the only real manifestation of Falangism since 1940 was with the minuscule (and probably defunct)La Falange Cubana.[21]
A group known as theAlianza Revolucionaria Nacionalista Ecuatoriana appeared in 1948, drawing its influences directly from Falangism andsynarchism. Under Jorge Luna, they recruited followers from the young upper middle classes and adopted a platform ofChristianity,nationalism andanti-communism. However, the group ultimately became more of a street fighting army in support ofPresidentJosé María Velasco Ibarra rather than a political party.[22]
A fringe tendency towards Falangism continues in theFalange Nacional Garciana Ecuatoriana, said to be a newly formed group.[18]
Under the regime ofArturo Armando Molina, left-winganti-government guerrilla activity became such a feature of Salvadoran life that government agencies began to fundfar-right paramilitaries and death squads to oppose the leftists. One of the first of these was theFuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional – Guerra de Exterminacion, better known by the acronym FALANGE, set up in 1975 with the stated aim of exterminating "all communists and their collaborators". Carrying out 38 murders in one week in October 1975 alone, the group changed its name to theUnion Guerrera Blanca in 1976, de-emphasising its Falangist ideology whilst continuing its initial role of assassination of left-wing targets.[23]
Mexican synarchism, which combined Catholicism with anti-communism, bore some of the hallmarks of Falangism and looked to Franco (amongst others) for inspiration. Its political representatives, theNational Synarchist Union, became influential during the late 1930s.
Alongside this indigenous variation a wholly mimetic group, theFalange Española Tradicionalista was formed in the country by Spanish merchants based there who opposed the consistent support given to theRepublican side in theSpanish Civil War byLázaro Cárdenas. The group neither sought nor had influence outside this immigrant population, however.[24]
Mexican far-right groups often emphasiseOrgulloCriollo ("Creole Pride"), which underlines the celebration of their links to Spain and thehispanidad culture.[25]
Falangist influence was felt in the country during the later 1930s, particularly in theColegio Centro América inManagua where the ideology was widespread. However, such activity was suppressed after 1941 as Nicaragua took a decidedly pro-United States line after theattack on Pearl Harbor.[26]
A minorFalange Perú exists and claims the support of Spanish Falangists.[27]
Around the time of theSpanish Civil War, the Falange was heavily active amongst the 8,000 or so Spanish citizens on the island, with an official branch of the Falange organised inSan Juan. This group officially disavowed any involvement in local politics, although it was scrutinised closely by theFBI during theSecond World War.[28]
Two very minor Falangist groups have been active in the drive for Puerto Rican independence. The first of these was theFalange Boricua, who have claimed that they were banned on 7 May 2000 after leader Walter Lozano was arrested attempting to blockade U.S. military bases on the island.[29] They have since been refounded as theMovimento Nacional Sindicalista de Puerto Rico.[30]
Primarily in Online spaces like TikTok, Twitter, and Telegram there has been a resurgence in Puerto Rican Falangism. Most followers tend to see the United States "Occupation" as an attempt to spreadMasonry,Protestantism andde-Hispanicize the Island. Nearly all of the followers of Falangism on the island seekReunification with Spain and believe theBlack legend has historically targeted the island.
Enrique Parra Bozo, who was noted for his admiration of Franco as well as his Catholicism and anti-communism, led thePartido Auténtico Nacionalista along Falangist lines. The group lent its support to the military regime ofMarcos Pérez Jiménez and even attempted, though unsuccessfully, to nominate him as their candidate for the1963 presidential election.[31]
A minor group, theFalange Venezolana, has been active in the 21st century and look toJosé Antonio Primo de Rivera,Ramiro Ledesma Ramos,Léon Degrelle,Ferenc Szálasi andCorneliu Zelea Codreanu for its inspiration.[32]
