According toThomas Aquinas, faith is "an act of the intellect assenting to the truth at the command of the will".[6]Religion has a long tradition, since the ancient world, of analyzing divine questions using common human experiences such as sensation, reason, science, and history that do not rely on revelation—calledNatural theology.[7]
The English wordfaith finds its roots in theProto-Indo-European (PIE) root *bheidh-, signifying concepts oftrust,confidence, andpersuasion. This root has given rise to various terms across different languages, such asGreekπίστις (pístis), meaning "faith", andLatinfidēs, meaning "trust", "faith", "confidence".[8]
Furthermore, the Proto-Indo-European root *were-o- adds another layer to the word's etymology, emphasizing the notions of truth and trustworthiness. This root is evident in English words likeveracity,verity, andverify, as well as in Latin withverus, meaning "true".[8]
The termfaith in English emerged in the mid-13th century, evolving fromAnglo-French andOld French forms likefeid andfeit, ultimately tracing back to the Latinfidēs. This Latin term, rooted in the PIE root *bheidh-, encompassed meanings such astrust,confidence, andbelief.[8]
More generally, "faith" is confidence or trust in aperson, thing, or concept.[9] According to theMerriam-Webster's Dictionary, faith has multiple definitions, including "something that is believed especially with strong conviction", "complete trust", "belief and trust in and loyalty to God", as well as "a firm belief in something for which there is no proof".[10]
In the Roman world, 'faith' (Latin:fides) was understood without particular association with gods or beliefs. Instead, it was understood as a paradoxical set of reciprocal ideas: voluntary will and voluntary restraint in the sense of father over family or host over guest, whereby one party willfully surrenders to a party who could harm but chooses not to, thereby entrusting or confiding in them.[11]
The word translated as "faith" in English-language editions of the New Testament, theGreek wordπίστις (pístis), can also be translated as "belief", "faithfulness", or "trust".[13] Faith can also be translated from the Greek verbπιστεύω (pisteuo), meaning "to trust, to have confidence, faithfulness, to be reliable, to assure".[14] Christianity encompasses various views regarding the nature of faith. Some see faith as being persuaded or convinced that something is true.[15] In this view, a person believes something when they are presented with adequate evidence that it is true. The 13th-century theologian SaintThomas Aquinas did not hold that faith is mere opinion: on the contrary, he held that it represents a mean (understood in theAristotelian sense) between excessive reliance on science (i.e., demonstration) and excessive reliance on opinion.[16]
According toTeresa Morgan, faith was understood by early Christians within the cultural milieu of the period as a relationship that created a community based on trust, instead of a set of mental beliefs or feelings of the heart.[17]
Numerous commentators discuss the results of faith. Some believe that true faith results in good works, while others believe that while faith inJesus brings eternal life, it does not necessarily result in good works.[18]
Regardless of the approach taken to faith, all Christians agree that the Christian faith (in the sense of Christian practice) is aligned with the ideals and the example of the life ofJesus. The Christian contemplates the mystery ofGod and hisgrace and seeks to know and become obedient to God. To a Christian, the faith is not static, but causes one to learn more of God and to grow in faith; Christian faith has its origin in God.[19]
In Christianity, faith causes change as it seeks a greater understanding of God. Faith is notfideism or simple obedience to a set of rules or statements.[20] Before Christians have faith, but they must also understand in whom and in what they have faith. Without understanding, there cannot be true faith, and that understanding is built on the foundation of the community of believers, the scriptures and traditions, and on the personal experiences of thebeliever.[21]
Christians may recognize different degrees of faith when they encourage each other to, and themselves strive to, develop, grow, and/or deepen their faith.[22]This may imply that one can measure faith. Willingness to undergomartyrdom indicates a proxy for depth of faith but does not provide an everyday measurement for the average contemporary Christian. Within theCalvinist tradition, the degree of prosperity[23] may serve as an analog of the level of faith.[24]Other Christian strands may rely on personal self-evaluation to measure the intensity of an individual's faith, with associated difficulties in calibrating to any scale. Solemn affirmations of acreed (a statement of faith) providebroad measurements of details.[clarification needed] Various tribunals of theInquisition, however, concerned themselves with precisely evaluating the orthodoxy of the faith of those it examined, to acquit or to punish in varying degrees.[25]
The classification of different degrees of faith allows that faith and its expression may wax and wane in fervor, during the lifetime of a faithful individual and/or over the various historical centuries of a society with an embedded religious system. Thus, one can speak of an "Age of Faith"[26]or of the "decay" of a society'sreligiosity into corruption,[27]secularism,[28]oratheism,[29]—interpretable as the ultimate loss of faith.[30]
In contrast toRichard Dawkins' view of faith as "blind trust, in the absence of evidence, even in the teeth of evidence",[31]Alister McGrath quotes the Oxford Anglican theologianW. H. Griffith Thomas (1861–1924), who states that faith is "not blind, but intelligent" and that it "commences with the conviction of the mind based on adequate evidence...", which McGrath sees as "a good and reliable definition, synthesizing the core elements of the characteristic Christian understanding of faith".[32]
American biblical scholarArchibald Thomas Robertson (1863–1934) stated that the Greek wordpistis used for "faith" in the New Testament (over two hundred forty times), and rendered "assurance" inActs 17:31, is "an old verb meaning 'to furnish', used regularly byDemosthenes for bringing forward evidence."[33] Tom Price (Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics) affirms that when the New Testament talks about faith positively it only uses words derived from the Greek root [pistis] which means "to be persuaded".[34]
British Christian apologistJohn Lennox argues that "faith conceived as a belief that lacks warrant is very different from faith conceived as a belief that has warrant". He states, "the use of the adjective 'blind' to describe 'faith' indicates that faith is not necessarily, or always, or indeed normally, blind". "The validity, or warrant, of faith or belief depends on the strength of the evidence on which the belief is based." "We all know how to distinguish between blind faith and evidence-based faith. We are well aware that faith is only justified if there is evidence to back it up." "Evidence-based faith is the normal concept on which we base our everyday lives."[35]
Peter S. Williams holds that "the classic Christian tradition has always valued rationality and does not hold that faith involves the complete abandonment of reason while believing in the teeth of evidence".[36] QuotingMoreland, faith is defined as "a trust in and commitment to what we have reason to believe is true".
Regardingdoubting Thomas inJohn 20:24–31, Williams points out that "Thomas wasn't asked to believe without evidence. He was asked to believe based on the other disciples' testimony. Thomas initially lacked the first-hand experience of the evidence that had convinced them... Moreover, the reason John gives for recounting these events is that what he saw is evidence... Jesus did many other miraculous signs in the presence of his disciples... But these are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the son of God, and that believing ye might have life in his name.John 20:30–31."[37]
Concerning doubting Thomas, Michael R. Allen wrote: "Thomas's definition of faith implies adherence to conceptual propositions for the sake of personal knowledge, knowledge of and about a personqua person".[38]
Kenneth Boa and Robert M. Bowman Jr. describe a classic understanding of faith that is referred to asevidentialism, and which is part of a largerepistemological tradition calledclassicalfoundationalism, which is accompanied bydeontologism, which holds that humans must regulate their beliefs following evidentialist structures. They show how this can go too far,[how?][39] andAlvin Plantingadeals with it.[clarification needed] While Plantinga upholds that faith may be the result of evidence testifying to the reliability of the source (of the truth claims), yet he sees having faith as being the result of hearing the truth of the gospel with the internal persuasion by theHoly Spirit moving and enabling him to believe. "Christian belief is produced in the believer by the internal instigation of the Holy Spirit, endorsing the teachings of Scripture, which is itself divinely inspired by the Holy Spirit. The result of the work of the Holy Spirit is faith."[40]
The four-partCatechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) gives Part One to "The Profession of Faith". This section describes the content of faith. It elaborates and expands, particularly upon theApostles' Creed. CCC 144 initiates a section on the "Obedience of Faith".[citation needed]
In thetheology ofPope John Paul II, faith is understood in personal terms as a trusting commitment of person to person and thus involves Christian commitment to the divine person ofJesus Christ.[41]
Living faith is the gift of God (Ephesians 2:8;Romans 4:16) imparted to the obedient heart through the Word of God (Romans 10:17), and the ministry of the Holy Ghost (Ephesians 2:18). This faith becomes effective as it is exercised by man with the aid of the Spirit, which aid is always assured when the heart has met the divine condition (Hebrews 5:9). Living faith is to be distinguished from intellectual confidence which may be in the possession of any unawakened soul (Romans 10:1–4).
— Principles of Faith, Emmanuel Association of Churches[43]
Some alternative, yet impactful, ideas regarding the nature of faith were presented by church founderJoseph Smith[44] in a collection of sermons, which are now published as theLectures on Faith.[45]
Lecture 1 explains what faith is.
Lecture 2 describes how humankind comes to know about God.
Lectures 3 and 4 clarify God's necessary and unchanging attributes.
Lecture 5 deals with the nature of God the Father, his Son Jesus, and the Holy Ghost.
Lecture 6 proclaims that the willingness to sacrifice all earthly things is a prerequisite to gaining faith in salvation.
Lecture 7 treats the fruits of faith—perspective, power, and eventually perfection.[46]
Faith in Buddhism (saddhā,śraddhā) refers to a serene commitment to the practice of the Buddha's teaching and trust in enlightened or highly developed beings, such asBuddhas orbodhisattvas (those aiming to become a Buddha).[47][48]: 388–89 Buddhists usually recognize multiple objects of faith, but many are especially devoted to one particular object of faith, such as one particular Buddha.[47][48]: 386, 396–7 [49]
Inearly Buddhism, faith was focused on theThree Jewels or Refuges—namely,Gautama Buddha, his teaching (theDhamma), and the community of spiritually developed followers, or themonastic community seeking enlightenment (theSangha). Although offerings to the monastic community were valued highest, early Buddhism did not morally condemn peaceful offerings todeities.[50]: 74–5, 81 A faithful devotee was calledupāsaka orupāsika, for which no formal declaration was required.[51] In early Buddhism, personal verification was valued highest in attaining the truth, and sacred scriptures, reason, or faith in a teacher were considered less valuable sources of authority.[52] As important as faith was, it was a mere initial step to the path towisdom andenlightenment, and was obsolete or redefined at the final stage of that path.[50]: 49–50 [48]: 384, 396–7
Whilefaith in Buddhism does not imply "blind faith", Buddhist practice nevertheless requires a degree of trust, primarily in the spiritual attainment ofGautama Buddha. Faith in Buddhism can still be described as faith in the Three Jewels (the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha). It is intended to lead to the goal of enlightenment, orbodhi, andNirvana. Volitionally, faith implies a resolute and courageous act of will. It combines the steadfast resolution that one will do a thing with the self-confidence that one can do it.[53]
Faith was given a much more important role in the later stratum of Buddhist history, especiallyMahāyāna Buddhism.[54]: 172 [55] The concept of theBuddha Nature was developed, as devotion to Buddhas andbodhisattvas residing inPure Lands became commonplace.[56] With the arising of the cult of theLotus Sūtra, faith gained a central role in Buddhist practice,[57] which was further amplified with the development of devotion to theAmitabha Buddha inPure Land Buddhism.[58][59]: 123 In the Japanese form of Pure Land Buddhism, under the teachersHōnen andShinran, onlyentrusting faith toward the Amitabha Buddha was believed to be a fruitful form of practice, as the practice of celibacy, morality, and other Buddhist disciplines were dismissed as no longer effective in this day and age, or as contradicting the virtue of faith.[59]: 122–3 [54]: 230, 255 [60] Faith was defined as a state similar to enlightenment, with a sense of self-negation and humility.[61]
Thus, the role of faith increased throughout Buddhist history. However, from the nineteenth century onward,Buddhist modernism in countries like Sri Lanka, Japan, and the West has downplayed and criticized the role of faith in Buddhism. Faith in Buddhism still has a role in modern Asia and the West, but is understood and defined differently than in traditional interpretations.[54]: 378, 429, 444 [62] Within theDalit Buddhist Movement communities, takingrefuge is defined not only as a religious, but also a political choice.[63]
Bhakti (Sanskrit:भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".[64] It was originally used inHinduism, referring to devotion and love for a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.[65] In ancient texts such as theShvetashvatara Upanishad, the term simply means participation, devotion, and love for any endeavor, while in theBhagavad Gita, it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towardsmoksha, as inbhakti marga.[66]
Ahimsa, also referred to asnonviolence, is a fundamental tenet of Hinduism that advocates harmonious and peaceful co-existence and evolutionary growth in grace and wisdom for all humankind unconditionally.[relevant?]
In Hinduism, most Vedic prayers begin with the chants of Om.Om is theSanskrit symbol that amazingly resonates the peacefulness ensconced within one's higher self. Om is considered to have a profound effect on the body and mind of the one who chants and also creates a calmness, serenity, healing, strength of its own to prevail within and also in the surrounding environment.[relevant?]
In Islam, a believer's faith in the metaphysical aspects ofIslam is calledIman (Arabic:الإيمان), which is complete submission to the will of God, not unquestioning or naive belief.[67] A man must build his faith on well-grounded convictions beyond any reasonable doubt and above uncertainty.[68] According to the Quran,Iman must be accompanied by righteous deeds and the two together are necessary for entry intoParadise.[69] In the Hadith of Gabriel,Iman in addition toIslam andIhsan form the three dimensions of the Islamic religion.
Muhammad referred to thesix axioms of faith in theHadith of Gabriel: "Iman is that you believe in God and His Angels and His Books and His Messengers and the Hereafter and the good and evil fate [ordained by your God]."[70] The first five are mentioned together in the Qur'an.[71] The Quran states that faith can grow with remembrance of God.[72] The Qur'an also states that nothing in this world should be dearer to a true believer than faith.[73]
Judaism recognizes the positive value ofemunah[74] (generally translated as "faith" or "trust in God") and the negative status of theepikoros (heretic), but faith is not as stressed or as central as it is in some other religions, especiallyChristianity orIslam—at least insofar as it can be analogized to Judaism.[75] Faith may be a necessary component to the observance of religious Judaism, but there remains an assumption that the emphasis of Judaism is placed on "true"knowledge, "true"prophecy, and correct practice (i.e.,orthopraxy) rather than on faith itself. Historically, Jewish faith has not required an individual Jew's assent to acreed (a lá mainstream Christianity) or other structured belief systems to be considered genuine faith.[76] Judaism does not require a Jew to explicitly believe inGod (a key tenet ofChristian faith, which is termedavodah zarah (foreign worship) in Judaism, a minor form ofidolatry). Instead, in Judaism, one is to honor a (personal) conception of God, supported by the many principles quoted in theTalmud to define Judaism (mostly by what it is not). Thus, there is no commonly accepted, established formulation ofJewish principles of faith that are mandatory for observantJews.
In the Jewish scriptures, trust in God (emunah) refers to how God acts toward his people and how they are to respond to him; it is rooted in the everlastingcovenant established in theTorah, notably inDeuteronomy 7:9.[76]
Know therefore that the LORD thy God, He is God; the faithful God, who keepeth covenant and mercy with them that love Him and keep His commandments to a thousand generations;[77]
The specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been disputed throughout Jewish history. Today, many, but not all,Orthodox Jews have acceptedMaimonides'sThirteen Principles of Belief.[78]
A traditional example ofEmunah as seen in the Jewish annals is found in the person ofAbraham. On several occasions, Abraham both accepts statements from God that seem impossible and offers obedient actions in response to direction from God to do things that seem implausible.[79]
TheTalmud describes how a thief also believes in G‑d: On the brink of his forced entry, as he is about to risk his life—and the life of his victim—he cries out with all sincerity, "G‑d help me!" The thief has faith that there is a G‑d who hears his cries, yet it escapes him that this G‑d may be able to provide for him without requiring that he abrogate G‑d's will by stealing from others. Foremunah to affect him in this way he needs study and contemplation.[80]
Faith is not a religious concept in Sikhism. However, the five Sikh symbols, known as Kakaars orFive Ks (in Punjabi known aspañj kakkē orpañj kakār), are sometimes referred to as theFive articles of Faith. The articles includekēs (uncut hair),kaṅghā (small wooden comb),kaṛā (circular steel or iron bracelet),kirpān (sword/dagger), andkacchera (special undergarment). BaptisedSikhs are bound to wear those five articles of faith, at all times, to save them from bad company and keep them close to God.[81]
In theBaháʼí Faith, faith is meant, first, as conscious knowledge, second, as the practice of good deeds,[82] and ultimately as the acceptance of the divine authority of theManifestations of God.[83] In the religion's view, faith and knowledge are both required for spiritual growth.[83] Faith involves more than outward obedience to this authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings.[83]
Secular faith refers to a belief or conviction that is not based on religious or supernatural doctrines.[84] Secular faith can arise from a wide range of sources and can take many forms, depending on the individual's beliefs and experiences, including:
Philosophy
Many secular beliefs are rooted in philosophical ideas, such as humanism or rationalism. These belief systems often emphasize the importance of reason, ethics, and human agency, rather than relying on supernatural or religious explanations. A prime example is the philosopherImmanuel Kant, whosedeontological ethical theory has profoundly shaped western secular values from the 18th century onward. He professed a secular faith in reason, writing in theGroundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals that "the true vocation of reason must be to produce a will that is good, not perhaps as a means to other purposes, but good in itself, for which reason was absolutely necessary. This will need not, because of this, be the sole and complete good, but it must still be the highest good and the condition of every other, even of all demands for happiness."[85]
Personal values and principles
People may develop secular faith based on their own values and principles, such as a belief in social justice or environmentalism.
Community and culture
Secular faith can also be influenced by the values and beliefs of a particular community or culture. For example, some people may have faith in the principles of democracy, human rights, or freedom of expression.
The epistemological study focuses on epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and various related issues. A justified belief is a belief that is well-supported by evidence and reasons, and that is arrived at through a reliable and trustworthy process of inquiry.
Faith is often regarded as a form of belief that may not necessarily rely on empirical evidence. However, when religious faith does make empirical claims, these claims need to undergo scientific testing to determine their validity. On the other hand, some beliefs may not make empirical claims and instead focus on non-empirical issues such as ethics, morality, and spiritual practices. In these cases, it may be necessary to evaluate the validity of these beliefs based on their internal coherence and logical consistency, rather than empirical testing.
There is a wide spectrum of opinion concerning theepistemological validity of faith[86] — that is, whether it is a reliable way to acquire true beliefs.
Fideism is considered to be aphilosophical position rather than a comprehensiveepistemological theory. It maintains that faith is independent ofreason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particulartruths (seenatural theology). Fideism is not a synonym for religious belief but describes a particular philosophical proposition concerning the relationship between faith's appropriate jurisdiction at arriving at truths, contrasted against reason. It states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, and it questions the ability of reason to arrive at all truth. The word and concept had its origin in the mid to late-19th century by way ofCatholic thought, in a movement calledTraditionalism. The Roman CatholicMagisterium has, however, repeatedly condemnedfideism.[87]
Critics of fideism suggest that it is not a justified or rational position from an epistemological standpoint. Fideism holds that religious beliefs cannot be justified or evaluated based on evidence or reason and that faith alone is a sufficient basis for belief. This position has been criticized because it leads to dogmatism, irrationality, and a rejection of the importance of reason and evidence in understanding the world.[88]
William Alston argues that while faith is an important aspect of religious belief, it must be grounded in reason and evidence to be justified.[89]
Religious epistemologists formulated and defended reasons for the rationality of accepting belief in God without the support of an argument.[90] Some religious epistemologists hold that belief in God is more analogous to belief in a person than belief in a scientific hypothesis. Human relations demand trust and commitment. If belief in God is more like belief in other persons, then the trust that is appropriate to persons will be appropriate to God. Americanpsychologist andphilosopherWilliam James offers a similar argument in his lectureThe Will to Believe.[90][91]
Foundationalism is a view about the structure of justification orknowledge.[92] Foundationalism holds that all knowledge andjustified belief are ultimately based upon what are calledproperly basic beliefs. This position is intended to resolve theinfinite regress problem inepistemology. According to foundationalism, a belief is epistemically justified only if it is justified by properly basic beliefs. One of the significant developments in foundationalism is the rise ofreformed epistemology.[92]
Reformed epistemology is a view about the epistemology of religious belief, which holds that belief in God can be properly basic.Analytic philosophersAlvin Plantinga andNicholas Wolterstorff develop this view.[93] Plantinga holds that a person may rationally believe in God even though the person does not possess sufficient evidence to convince an agnostic. One difference between reformed epistemology and fideism is that the former requires defense against known objections, whereas the latter might dismiss such objections as irrelevant.[94] Plantinga developed reformed epistemology inWarranted Christian Belief as a form ofexternalism that holds that the justification-conferring factors for a belief may include external factors.[95]
Sometheistic philosophers have defended theism by grantingevidentialism but supporting theism through deductive arguments whose premises are considered justifiable. Some of these arguments are probabilistic, either in the sense of having weight but being inconclusive or in the sense of having amathematical probability assigned to them.[90] Notable in this regard are the cumulative arguments presented byBritish philosopherBasil Mitchell andanalytic philosopherRichard Swinburne, whose arguments are based onBayesian probability.[96] In a notable exposition of his arguments, Swinburne appeals to an inference for the best explanation.[97]
Professor of Mathematics andphilosopher of science atUniversity of OxfordJohn Lennox justifies his religious belief in Jesus's resurrection and miracles by believing God's capability of breaking the commonly recognized law of nature.[98]John Lennox has stated, "Faith is not a leap in the dark; it's the exact opposite. It's a commitment based onevidence… It is irrational to reduce all faith to blind faith and then subject it to ridicule. That provides a very anti-intellectual and convenient way of avoiding intelligent discussion." He criticisesRichard Dawkins as a famous proponent of asserting that faith equates to holding a belief without evidence, thus that it is possible to hold belief without evidence, for failing to provide evidence for this assertion.[99][clarification needed]
Critics of reformed epistemology argue that it fails to provide a compelling justification for belief in God and that it is unable to account for the diversity of religious belief and experience. They also argue that it can lead to a kind of epistemic relativism, in which all religious beliefs are considered equally valid and justified, regardless of their content or coherence. Despite these criticisms, reformed epistemology has been influential in the contemporary philosophy of religion and continues to be an active area of debate and discussion.[100]
Many religious beliefs are intended to be metaphorical or symbolic, but there are also religious beliefs that are taken quite literally by believers. For example, some Christians believe that the Earth was created in six literal days, and some Muslims believe that the Quran contains scientific facts that were not known to humans at the time of its revelation. Furthermore, even if a religious belief is intended to be metaphorical or symbolic, it can still be subject to empirical testing if it makes claims about the world. For example, the claim that the Earth is the center of the universe can be interpreted as a metaphorical representation of humanity's special place in the cosmos, but it also makes an empirical claim that can be tested by scientific observation.[101]
From a scientific perspective, morality is not dependent on faith.[citation needed] While some individuals may claim that their morality is rooted in their faith or religious beliefs, there is evidence to suggest that morality is also influenced by other factors, such as social and cultural norms, empathy, and reason. Studies have shown that individuals from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds tend to share many moral values, suggesting that morality is not solely dependent on faith. Additionally, research in the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and evolutionary biology has shed light on the biological and cognitive mechanisms underlying moral decision-making, providing further evidence that morality is not exclusively dependent on faith.[102]
Christians hold that their faith does good, but other faiths do harm. At any rate, they hold this about the communist faith. What I wish to maintain is that all faiths do harm. We may define "faith" as a firm belief in something for which there is no evidence. Where there is evidence, no one speaks of "faith". We do not speak of faith that two and two are four or that the earth is round. We only speak of faith when we wish to substitute emotion for evidence. The substitution of emotion for evidence is apt to lead to strife, since different groups substitute different emotions. Christians have faith in the Resurrection; communists have faith inMarx's Theory of Value. Neither faith can be defended rationally, and each therefore is defended by propaganda and, if necessary, by war.
— Will Religious Faith Cure Our Troubles?
Evolutionary biologistRichard Dawkins criticizes all faith by generalizing from specific faith in propositions that conflict directly with scientific evidence.[103] He describes faith as belief without evidence; a process of active non-thinking. He states that it is a practice that only degrades our understanding of the natural world by allowing anyone to make a claim about nature that is based solely on their personal thoughts, and possibly distorted perceptions, that does not require testing against nature, cannot make reliable and consistent predictions, and is not subject to peer review.[104]
Philosophy professorPeter Boghossian argues that reason and evidence are the only way to determine which "claims about the world are likely true". Different religious traditions make different religious claims, and Boghossian asserts that faith alone cannot resolve conflicts between these without evidence. He gives an example of the belief held by Muslims thatMuhammad (who died in the year 632) was the last prophet, and the contradictory belief held by Mormons thatJoseph Smith (born in 1805) was a prophet. Boghossian asserts that faith has no "built-in corrective mechanism". For factual claims, he gives the example of the belief that the Earth is 4,000 years old. With only faith and no reason or evidence, he argues, there is no way to correct this claim if it is inaccurate. Boghossian advocates thinking of faith either as "belief without evidence" or "pretending to know things you don't know".[105]
The fact that faith, under certain circumstances, may work for blessedness, but that this blessedness produced by an idée fixe by no means makes the idea itself true, and the fact that faith actually moves no mountains, but instead raises them up where there were none before: all this is made sufficiently clear by a walk through a lunatic asylum. Not, of course, to a priest: for his instincts prompt him to the lie that sickness is not sickness and lunatic asylums not lunatic asylums. Christianity finds sickness necessary, just as the Greek spirit had need of a superabundance of health—the actual ulterior purpose of the whole system of salvation of the church is to make people ill. And the church itself—doesn't it set up a Catholic lunatic asylum as the ultimate ideal?—The whole earth as a madhouse?—The sort of religious man that the church wants is a typical décadent; the moment at which a religious crisis dominates a people is always marked by epidemics of nervous disorder; the "inner world" of the religious man is so much like the "inner world" of the overstrung and exhausted that it is difficult to distinguish between them; the "highest" states of mind, held up before mankind by Christianity as of supreme worth, are actually epileptoid in form—the church has granted the name of holy only to lunatics or to gigantic frauds in majorem dei honorem....
Gustave Le Bon emphasizes the irrational nature of faith and suggests that it is often based on emotions rather than reason. He argues that faith can be used to manipulate and control people, particularly in the context of religious or political movements. In this sense, Le Bon views faith as a tool that can be wielded by those in power to shape the beliefs and behaviors of the masses.[107]
Faith as in 'strong unshakable faith' isconsidered avirtue by many religious believers. This has been criticized since beliefs, including religious beliefs, should not be "exempt fromcritical evaluation" even if questioning or reconsidering these is difficult.[108][additional citation(s) needed]
^Kaufmann, Walter Arnold (1961).The Faith of a Heretic. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-16548-6.Faith means intense, usually confident, a belief that is not based on evidence sufficient to command assent from every reasonable person{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^"Faith and Reason".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 2023-05-07. Retrieved2023-05-07.As unforced belief, faith is 'an act of the intellect assenting to the truth at the command of the will' (Summa theologiae, II/II, Q. 4, art. 5); and it is because this is a free and responsible act that faith is one of the virtues... Aquinas thus supported the general (though not universal) Christian view that revelation supplements, rather than cancels or replaces, the findings of sound philosophy.
^"Natural Theology".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. University of Tennessee.Archived from the original on 2021-05-08. Retrieved2023-05-07.For purposes of studying natural theology, Jews, Christians, Muslims, and others will bracket and set aside for the moment their commitment to the sacred writings or traditions they believe to be God's word. Doing so enables them to proceed together to engage in the perennial questions about God using the sources of evidence that they share by virtue of their common humanity, for example, sensation, reason, science, and history. Agnostics and atheists, too, can engage in natural theology. For them, it is simply that they have no revelation-based views to bracket and set aside in the first place.
^"faith".Webster's Dictionary.Archived from the original on 2023-03-03. Retrieved2023-03-03.
^Barton, Carlin; Boyarin, Daniel (2016).Imagine No Religion: How Modern Abstractions Hide Ancient Realities. Fordham University Press. pp. 115, 242.ISBN978-0-8232-7120-7.
^Pope Francis,Laudato si', paragraph 201, published 24 May 2015, accessed 11 May 2024
^Thomas, Robert L., ed. (1981).New American standard exhaustive concordance of the Bible. Nashville, Tenn.: A.J. Holman. pp. 1674–75.ISBN0-87981-197-8.
^Wilkin, Robert N. (2012).The Ten Most Misunderstood Words in the Bible. Corinth, Tex.: GES. p. 221.
^Compare:Weber, Max (1905).The Protestant Ethic and the 'Spirit' of Capitalism: and Other Writings. Penguin twentieth-century classics. Translated by Baehr, Peter; Wells, Gordon C. New York: Penguin (published 2002).ISBN978-1-101-09847-9.Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved25 September 2019.In the course of its development, Calvinism made a positive addition: the idea of the necessity ofputting one's faith to the test [Bewährung des Glaubens] in secular working life. [...] It thus provided thepositive motivation [Antrieb] for asceticism, and with the firm establishment of its ethics in the doctrine of predestination, the spiritual aristocracy of the monks, who stood outside and above the world, was replaced by the spiritual aristocracy of the saintsin the world, predestined by God from eternity [...].{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Peters, Edward (1988). "The Inquisition in Literature and Art".Inquisition (reprint ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press (published 1989). p. 225.ISBN978-0-520-06630-4. Retrieved25 September 2019.The costuming of those convicted [...] was the result of careful planning and indicated specific gradations of guilt. There was never a single, simplesanbenito, for example, but a different kind ofsanbenito for different crimes and degrees of heresy, with corresponding headgear [...]. The garb of the penitents, the procession with inquisitorial banners and crosses, the careful design of the seating and sequence of the ceremony made theauto-de-fé itself 'a work of art [...]' [...]. [...] The aim of theauto-de-fé, as its name suggests, is the 'act of faith,' that is, the liturgical demonstration of the truth of the faith and the error and evil of its enemies.
Tanner, Norman (2009).The Ages of Faith: Popular Religion in Late Medieval England and Western Europe. Volume 56 of International Library of Historical Studies. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 161.ISBN978-1-84511-760-3. Retrieved28 October 2021.After all, was not the Middle Ages the 'age of faith'par execellence, the time when the whole of Europe was united not only in its belief but also in a common view of society?
^The Norton History of Modern Europe. 1971. p. 129. Retrieved28 October 2021.Luther attacked not the corruption of institutions but what he believed to be the corruption of faith itself.
^Brown, Callum G (12 January 2017).Becoming Atheist: Humanism and the Secular West. London: Bloomsbury Publishing (published 2017). p. 2.ISBN978-1-4742-2455-0. Retrieved28 October 2021.By the 1990s, the liberalization of Western culture allowed the individual in most countries to be comfortably alienated from church and faith without fear of censure or social stigma [...].
^Kalla, Krishen Lal (1989).The Mid-Victorian Literature and Loss of Faith (1 ed.). New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 205.ISBN978-81-7099-155-7. Retrieved28 October 2021.In the mid-Victorian era [...] new scientific discoveries broke out giving rise to agnosticism, scepticism and atheism. All important writers of this age came under the influence of rationalism and their writings are a record of the struggle in their minds between faith and loss of faith. Some, likeSwinburne andJ. Thomson (B.V.) became atheists [...].
^Dawkins, Richard (1989).The Selfish Gene (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 198.
^Allen, Michael (2009).The Christ's Faith: A Dogmatic Account. London: T&T Clark Studies in Systematic Theology. p. 80.ISBN978-0-567-03399-4.
^Boa, Kenneth; Bowman, Robert M. (March 1, 2006).Faith Has Its Reasons: Integrative Approaches to Defending the Christian Faith. USA: IVP Books. p. 253.ISBN978-0-8308-5648-0.
^Dulles, Avery (2003).The Splendor of Faith: The Theological Vision of Pope John Paul II. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company. pp. vii–viii.ISBN0-8245-2121-8.
^Elwell, Walter A. (1 May 2001).Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Baker Reference Library). Baker Publishing Group. p. 1268.ISBN978-1-4412-0030-3.This balance is most evident in Wesley's understanding of faith and works, justification and sanctification... Wesley, in a sermon entitled 'Justification by Faith', makes an attempt to define the term accurately. First, he states what justification is not. It is not being made actually just and righteous (that is sanctification). It is not being cleared of the accusations of Satan, nor of the law, nor even of God. We have sinned, so the accusation stands. Justification implies pardon, the forgiveness of sins...Ultimately for the true Wesleyan salvation is completed by our return to original righteousness. This is done by the work of the Holy Spirit...The Wesleyan tradition insists that grace is not contrasted with law but with the works of the law. Wesleyans remind us that Jesus came to fulfill, not destroy the law. God made us in his perfect image, and he wants that image restored. He wants to return us to a full and perfect obedience through the process of sanctification... Good works follow after justification as its inevitable fruit. Wesley insisted that Methodists who did not fulfill all righteousness deserved the hottest place in the lake of fire.
^Tremblay, Xavier (2007). "The spread of Buddhism in Serindia". In Heirman, Ann; Bumbacher, Stephan Peter (eds.).The spread of Buddhism (online ed.). Leiden:Brill Publishers. p. 87.ISBN978-90-04-15830-6.
"Bhakti".Bhakti | Hinduism, Devotion & Rituals | Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Archived fromthe original on 2020-12-29.
Pechelis, Karen (2011). "Bhakti Traditions". In Frazier, Jessica; Flood, Gavin (eds.).The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies. Bloomsbury. pp. 107–121.ISBN978-0-8264-9966-0.
^Lochtefeld, John (2014).The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. New York: Rosen Publishing. pp. 98–100.ISBN978-0-8239-2287-1. Also see articles onbhaktimārga andjnanamārga.
^Segal, Alan (1990).Paul the Convert. Yale University Press. pp. 128, 148, 175.ISBN0-300-04527-1.For a Jew, faith fundamentally precedes anything as well, but there is no need to distinguish between it and law. Jews perform the commandments because they are commanded by God, not because they guarantee justification. This arrangement assumes a prior faith commitment and prior act on God's part in justifying that never needs to be discussed"... "For Paul, giving up special claims to the performance of ceremonial Torah was part of his dissonance over leavingPharisiasism and entering an apocalyptic community based on faith"... "The rabbi"... "felt individuals maintain righteousness through observing God's commandments"... "Paul"... "through faith,"... "justification is something that God grants in response to faith and thought the rabbis would not disagree they did not see Torah and faith in opposition.
For a history of this dispute see:Shapiro, Marc.The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised. Littman Library of Jewish Civilization.
Kurtz, Paul (November 25, 2008).Forbidden Fruit: The Ethics of Secularism.
Zuckerman, Phil.Society without God: What the Least Religious Nations Can Tell Us About Contentment.
^Kant, Immanuel (1999).Practical Philosophy. Translated by Gregor, Mary J. Cambridge University Press. p. 52.ISBN9780521654081. Retrieved23 February 2025.
^Amesbury, Richard."Fideism".Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved14 October 2015.
^Audi, R. (2005). "Fideism".The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
^Alston, W.P. (1986).Divine nature and human language: Essays in philosophical theology. Cornell University Press.
^abcClark, Kelly James (2 October 2004)."Religious Epistemology".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved23 October 2011.
^James, William."1896".New World.5:327–347.Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved23 October 2011.
^abPoston, Ted (10 June 2010)."Foundationalism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved23 October 2011.
^Plantinga, Alvin; Wolterstorff, Nicholas (1983).Faith and Rationality: Reason and Belief in God. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.ISBN0-268-00964-3.
^Forrest, Peter (11 March 2009)."The Epistemology of Religion".Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved23 October 2011.
^"God Delusion Debate (Dawkins – Lennox)".YouTube. 8 February 2017.Archived from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved2023-03-06....having produced some sort of a case for a kind of deistic God, perhaps some God — The Great Physicist who adjusted the laws and constants of the universe. That's all very grand and wonderful and then suddenly we come down to the resurrection of Jesus. It's so petty, it's so trivial...
^Dawkins, Richard (January–February 1997)."Is Science a Religion?". American Humanist Association. Archived fromthe original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved15 March 2008.
^Nietzsche, Friedrich (1999).The Anti-Christ. Translated by Mencken, H.L. Chicago: Sharp Press. p. 144.
^Le Bon, Gustave (1896).The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind.
^Hatcher, Donald (1 March 2014). "Should Religious Beliefs Be Exempt from the Duty to Think Critically?".Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines.29 (1):17–31.doi:10.5840/inquiryct20142913.
Stephen Palmquist, "Faith as Kant's Key to the Justification of Transcendental Reflection",The Heythrop Journal 25:4 (October 1984), pp. 442–455. Reprinted as Chapter V in Stephen Palmquist,Kant's System of Perspectives (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).
D. Mark Parks, "Faith/Faithfulness"Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Eds. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England. Nashville: Holman Publishers, 2003.
Deharbe, Joseph (1912)."Chapter 1: On Faith in General" .A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion. Translated by Rev. John Fander. Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss.
Pope, Hugh (1909)."Faith" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Slater S.J., Thomas (1925)."Book V: Part I: On Faith" .A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries. Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.
The God Delusion Debate (Dawkins – Lennox) (Dawkins believes the law of nature and denies Jesus resurrection and miracles; Lennox believes Jesus resurrection and miracles with justification by God's capability of breaking the commonly recognized law of nature.)
