The production of textiles which were initially artisanal work, has grown into a vast field today that includes the production of fibres, yarns, fabrics, and various fibrous products for different domestic and industrial usages.
Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles for domestic purposes andtechnical textiles. In consumer textiles,aesthetics andcomfort are the most important factors, while in technical textiles,functional properties are the priority.[4][6] The durability of textiles is an important property, with common cotton or blend garments (such as t-shirts) able to last twenty years or more with regular use and care.
Geotextiles,industrial textiles,medical textiles, and many other areas are examples of technical textiles, whereas clothing and furnishings are examples of consumer textiles. Each component of a textile product, including fibre, yarn, fabric, processing, andfinishing, affects the final product. Components may vary among various textile products as they are selected based on theirfitness for purpose.[4][7][6]
Fibre is the smallest fabric component; fibres are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to manufacture fabrics.[8][7] Fibre has a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio. The sources of fibres may benatural,synthetic, or both. The techniques offelting andbonding directly transform fibres into fabric. In other cases, yarns are manipulated with different fabric manufacturing systems to produce various fabric constructions. The fibres are twisted or laid out to make a long, continuous strand of yarn.[9] Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving, knitting,crocheting,knotting,tatting, orbraiding.[10][11][5] After manufacturing, textile materials are processed and finished to add value, such as aesthetics, physical characteristics, and utility in certain use cases.[12] The manufacturing of textiles is the oldest industrialart.[13]Dyeing,printing, andembroidery are all different decorative arts applied to textile materials.[14]
The word 'textile' comes from theLatin adjectivetextilis, meaning 'woven', which itself stems fromtextus, the past participle of the verbtexere, 'to weave'.[15] Originally applied towoven fabrics, the term "textiles" is now used to encompass a diverse range of materials, including fibres,yarns, andfabrics, as well as other related items.[9][16][3]
A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn, directly from fibres, polymeric film, foam, or any combination of these techniques. Fabric has a broader application than cloth.[17][18] Fabric is synonymous with cloth, material, goods, orpiece goods.[4][5] The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, with roots in theProto-Indo-European language. Stemming most recently from theMiddle Frenchfabrique, or "building," and earlier from the Latinfabrica ('workshop; an art, trade; a skillful production, structure, fabric'), the nounfabrica stems from the Latinfaber" artisan who works in hard materials', which itself is derived from the Proto-Indo-Europeandhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.[19]
Although cloth is a type of fabric, not all fabrics can be classified as cloth due to differences in their manufacturing processes, physical properties, and intended uses. Materials that are woven, knitted,tufted, or knotted from yarns are referred to as cloth, while wallpaper, plastic upholstery products, carpets, and nonwoven materials are examples of fabrics.[17]
Cloth is a flexible substance typically created through the processes of weaving, felting, or knitting using natural or synthetic materials.[20] The word 'cloth' derives from theOld Englishclað, meaning "a cloth, woven, or felted material to wrap around one's body', from theProto-Germanicklaithaz, similar to theOld Frisianklath, theMiddle Dutchcleet, theMiddle High Germankleit and the Germankleid, all meaning 'garment'.[21]
Textiles themselves are too fragile to survive across millennia; the tools used forspinning andweaving make up most of the prehistoric evidence for textile work. The earliest tool for spinning was thespindle, to which awhorl was eventually added. The weight of the whorl improved the thickness and twist of the spun thread. Later, thespinning wheel was invented. Historians are unsure where; some say China, others India.[22]
The precursors of today's textiles include leaves, barks, fur pelts, and felted cloths.[23]
The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example ofwarpikat in Southeast Asia, is displayed at theNational Museum of the Philippines. The cloth was most likely made by the native Asian people of northwestRomblon.The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the elements. At some point, people learned to weave plant fibres into textiles.
The speed and scale of textile production have been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques.[26] However, for the main types of textiles,plain weave,twill, orsatin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.
The textile industry grew out of art and craft and was kept going byguilds. In the 18th and 19th centuries, during theIndustrial Revolution, it became increasingly mechanized. In 1765, when a machine for spinning wool or cotton called thespinning jenny was invented in the United Kingdom, textile production became the first economic activity to be industrialized. In the 20th century, science and technology were driving forces.[27][28]The textile industry exhibits inherent dynamism, influenced by a multitude of transformative changes and innovations within the domain. Textile operations can experience ramifications arising from shifts in international trade policies, evolving fashion trends, evolving customer preferences, variations in production costs and methodologies, adherence to safety and environmental regulations, as well as advancements in research and development.[29]
The textile and garment industries exert a significant impact on the economic systems of numerous countries engaged in textile production.[30]
Sample of calico printed with a six-colour machine by Walter Crum & Co., fromFrederick Crace Calvert,Dyeing and Calico Printing (1878)
Most textiles were called by their base-fibre generic names, their place of origin, or were put into groups based loosely on manufacturing techniques, characteristics, and designs.[31][32][33][34]
Bearskin[35](bearskin cloth) may have received its name from its "shaggy nap".[36]
"Nylon", "olefin", and "acrylic" are generic names for some of the more commonly used synthetic fibres.[37]
In and around the 19th centuryPunjab andGujarat were famous for production of various handspun cloths. Dosuti was distinguished by the number of yarns (Do+Suti translates to 'two yarns') used to produce it. Eksuti was another variety using a single thread.
Dacca, in the eastern Indian subcontinent, produced a wide range of handwoven and spun muslins.Baft Hawa, which means "woven air",Shabnam, which means "evening dew", andab-i-ravan, which means "flowing water" are some poetic names for soft muslins.[42][43]
Another type of Muslin with soft and delicate texture
Characteristics
Pleasing to the body
Tan + Sukh translates to "body pleasing". Tansukh was a fine, soft, and delicate textured cloth. The cloth type is mentioned in the 16th-century Mughal-time records,Ain-i-Akbari.[45]
The related words "fabric"[11] and "cloth"[20] and "material" are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring anddressmaking) as synonyms fortextile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage.Material is an extremely broad term basically meaning consisting ofmatter, and requires context to be useful. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting andgeotextiles, which may not necessarily be used in the production of further goods, such as clothing andupholstery. Afabric is a material made throughweaving,knitting, spreading, felting, stitching, crocheting or bonding that may be used in the production of further products, such as clothing and upholstery, thus requiring a further step of the production.Cloth may also be used synonymously withfabric, but often specifically refers to a piece of fabric that has been processed or cut.[citation needed]
Greige goods: Textiles that are raw and unfinished are referred to asgreige goods. After manufacturing, the materials are processed and finished.[46][12]
Piece goods:Piece goods were textile materials sold in cut pieces as specified by the buyer. Piece goods were either cut from a fabric roll or made to a specific length, also known as yard goods.[47][48]
A baby wearing many items of soft winter clothing: headband, cap, fur-lined coat, scarf, andsweater
Textiles are various materials made from fibres and yarns. The term "textile" was originally only used to refer to woven fabrics, but today it covers a broad range of subjects.[16] Textiles are classified at various levels, such as according to fibre origin (natural or synthetic), structure (woven, knitted, nonwoven), finish, etc.[31][32][33][34] However, there are primarily two types of textiles:
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household, textiles are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings,window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. Textiles are used in many traditional hand crafts such assewing,quilting, andembroidery.[4]
Technical textile is a branch of textile that focuses on the protection, safety and other functional performance attributes of textiles, unlike domestic textiles, where the primary focus is aesthetics and comfort. A technician wearing anexplosive ordnance disposal (EOD) suit.Nonwovengeotextile bags are much more robust than woven bags of the same thickness.
Textiles produced for industrial purposes, and designed and chosen for technical characteristics beyond their appearance, are commonly referred to astechnical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (such as implants),geotextile (used for reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles forcrop protection), and protective clothing (such as clothing resistant to heat, radiation, or molten metals, and clothing resistant to puncture (for example, stab-resistant or bulletproof clothing)).
In the workplace, textiles can be used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags,backpacks,tents,nets, cleaningrags, and transportation devices such asballoons,kites,sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening incomposite materials such asfibreglass and industrialgeotextiles.[4][6]
Due to the often highly technical and legal requirements of these products, these textiles are typically tested to ensure they meet stringent performance requirements. Other forms of technical textiles may be produced to experiment with their scientific qualities and to explore the possible benefits they may have in the future. For example, threads coated withzinc oxidenanowires, when woven into fabric, have been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems", using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements to generate energy.[49][50]
Textiles are all around us. The textile is a component of basic needs like food and shelter. Textiles are everywhere in our lives, from bath towels to space suits. Textiles help humans by comforting, protecting, and extending their lives. Textiles meet our clothing needs, keeping us warm in the winter and cool in the summer. There are several applications for textiles, such as medical textiles, intelligent textiles, and automotive textiles. All of them contribute to the well-being of humans.[9]
The term "serviceability" refers to a textile product's ability to meet the needs of consumers. The emphasis is on knowing the target market and matching the needs of the target market to the product's serviceability. Serviceability or performance in textiles is the ability of textile materials to withstand various conditions, environments, and hazards. Aesthetics, durability, comfort and safety, appearance retention, care, environmental impact, and cost are the serviceability concepts employed in structuring the material.[clarification needed][51]
Fibres, yarns, fabric construction, finishes and design are components of a textile product. The selection of specific components varies with the intended use, therefore the fibres, yarns, and fabric manufacturing systems are selected with consideration of the required performance.[51]
Agro-textiles are used in agriculture, horticulture,aquaculture, landscape gardening andforestry. Mainly forcrop protection, in crop development for instance shade nets,thermal insulation and sunscreen materials, windshield, antibird nets, covering livestock protection, suppressing weed and insect control, etc.[53]
Textiles, textile production, and clothing were necessities of life in prehistory, intertwined with the social, economic, and religious systems. Other than clothing, textile crafts produced utilitarian, symbolic, and opulent items. Archaeological artifacts from the Stone Age and the Iron Age in Central Europe are used to examine prehistoric clothing and its role in forming individual and group identities.[56]
Artifacts unearthed in variousarchaeological excavations informs us about the remains of past human life and their activities.[57] Dyed flax fibres discovered in the Republic of Georgia indicate that textile-like materials were developed during thePaleolithic period.Radiocarbon dates the microscopic fibres to 36,000 years ago, when modern humans migrated from Africa.[25]
Several textile remnants, such as the Inca Empire's textile arts remnants, which embody the Incas' aesthetics and social ideals, serve as a means for disseminating information about numerous civilizations, customs, and cultures.[58][59]
There aretextile museums that display history related to many aspects of textiles. A textile museum raises public awareness and appreciation of the artistic merits and cultural significance of the world's textiles on a local, national, and international scale. TheGeorge Washington University Museum and Textile Museum in Washington, D.C., was established in 1925.[60]
Textiles are also used fordecorative art.Appliqué work of pipili is decorative art ofOdisha, a state ineastern India, used forumbrellas, wall hangings, lamp shades, and bags. To make a range of decorative products, coloured cloth in the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, are sewn onto a base cloth.[63]
This sectionneeds expansion with: summarize articleTextile arts to give indication of the range of textile arts.. You can help byadding to it.(September 2023)
Architextiles, a combination of the words architecture and textile, are textile-based assemblages. Awnings are a basic type of architectural textile.[64]Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent, which was a movable palace, is an example of the architextiles of theMughal period.[65]
Textiles had been used as currency as well. In Africa, textiles were used as currency in addition to being used for clothing, headwear, swaddling, tents, sails, bags, sacks, carpets, rugs, curtains, etc.[66] Along the east–west axis in sub-Saharan Africa, cloth strip, which was typically produced in the savannah, was used as a form of currency.[67]
The smallest component of a fabric is fibre; fibres are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to make fabrics. Fibres are very thin and hair-like structures. The sources of fibres may benatural,synthetic, or both.[9][69]
Global fibre production per person has increased from 8.4 kilograms in 1975 to 14.3 kilograms in 2021.[clarification needed] After a modest drop due toCOVID-19 pandemic in 2020, global fibre output rebounded to 113 million tons in 2021. Global fibre output roughly doubled from 58 million tons in 2000 to 113 million tons in 2021 and is anticipated to reach 149 million tons in 2030.[70]
The demand for synthetic fibres is increasing rapidly. This has numerous causes. Reasons include its low price, the demand-supply imbalance of cotton, and its [Synthetic fibres'] versatility in design and application. Synthetic fibres accounts for 70% of global fibre use, mainly polyester.[71] By 2030, the synthetic fibre market will reach 98.21 billion US dollars. From 2022 to 2030, the market is anticipated to increase by 5.1% per year.[72]
Natural fibres are obtained from plants, animals and minerals.[73] Since prehistoric times, textiles have been made from natural fibres. Natural fibres are further categorized as cellulosic, protein, and mineral.[74]
Semi-synthetic: A subset of synthetic or manmade fibres is semi-synthetic fibre. Rayon is a classified as a semi-synthetic fibre, made with natural polymers.
Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. Polymers in fibres are of two types: additive or condensation. Natural fibres, such as cotton and wool, have a condensation polymer type, whereas synthetic fibres can have either an additive or a condensation polymer type. For example,acrylic fibre andolefin fibres have additive polymers, and nylon andpolyester are condensation polymers.[75]
Fibre properties influence textile characteristics such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, and cost.[77]Fineness is one of the important characteristics of the fibres. They have a greater length-to-width ratio [100 times the diameter]. Fibres need to be strong, cohesive, and flexible. The usefulness of fibres are characterized on the basis of certain parameters such as strength, flexibility, and length to diameter ratio, and spinnability. Natural fibres are relatively short [staple] in length. Synthetic fibres are produced in longer lengths called filaments.Silk is the only natural fibre that is a filament. The classification of fibres is based on their origin, derivation, and generic types.[9][69]
Certain properties of synthetic fibres, such as their diameter,cross section, and colour, can be altered during production.[78]
Cotton: Cotton has a long history of use in the clothing due to its favourable properties. This fibre is soft, moisture-absorbent, breathable, and is renowned for its long durability.
Fabric oryarn produced with acombination of two or more types of differentfibres, or yarns to obtain desired traits. Blending is possible at various stages oftextile manufacturing. Final composition is liable for the properties of the resultant product.Natural andsynthetic fibres are blended to overcome disadvantage of single fibre properties and to achieve better performance characteristics and aesthetic effects such asdevoré,heather effect, cross dyeing and stripes pattern etc. Clothing woven from a blend of cotton andpolyester can be more durable and easier to maintain than material woven solely from cotton. Other than sharing functional properties, blending makes the products more economical.[79][80]
Union or Union fabrics is the 19th century term for blended fabrics. While it is no longer in use.[81]Mixture ormixed cloth is another term used for blended cloths when different types of yarns are used in warp and weft sides.[82][83]
Blended textiles are not new.
Mashru was a 16th-century fabric, is one of the earliest forms of "mixed cloth", a material composed of silk and cotton.[84]
Siamoise was a 17th-century cotton and linen material.[85]
Fibre composition[86] the fibre blend composition of mixtures of the fibres,[87] is an important criterion to analyse the behaviour, properties such as functional aspects, and commercial classification of the merchandise.[88][89][90]
The most common blend is cotton and polyester. Regular blended fabric is 65% polyester and 35% cotton. It is called areverse blend if the ratio of cotton predominates—the percentage of the fibres changes with the price and required properties.
Blending adds value to the textiles; it helps in reducing the cost (artificial fibres are less expensive than natural fibres) and adding advantage in properties of the final product.[91][92] For instance, a small amount of spandex adds stretch to the fabrics.[93] Wool can add warmth.[94]
Grass,rush,hemp, andsisal are all used in makingrope.[95] In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are used.Coir (coconut fibre) is used in makingtwine, and also in floormats,doormats,brushes,mattresses, floor tiles, andsacking.
Straw andbamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as iskapok.
Fibres frompulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, andnettle are used in making paper.
Cotton,flax,jute,hemp,modal,banana,bamboo,lotus,eucalyptus,mulberry, andsugarcane are all used in clothing.[96][97][98]Piña (pineapple fibre) andramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of thelacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks,velvets, andtaffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known asalginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
Rayon is a manufactured fibre derived from plant pulp.[99] Different types of rayon can imitatefeel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.
Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres. Hemp fibre is yellowish-brown fibre made from the hemp plant. The fibre characteristics are coarser, harsher,[clarification needed] strong and lightweight. Hemp fibre is used primary to make twine, rope and cordage.[100]
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin, or silk (in the case of silkworms).[clarification needed]
Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with awax mixture known aslanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.[101] The lanolin and other contaminants are removed from the raw wool before further processing.[102]Woollen refers to a yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, whileworsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel.
Cashmere, the hair of the Indiancashmere goat, andmohair, the hair of the North Africanangora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.Pashmina is a type of very fine cashmere wool. Used in the production of sweaters and scarfs.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of thecocoon of the Chinesesilkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by theBombyx mori, and 'wild silk' such asTussah silk (wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.[103] Silk products include pillow covers, dresses, tops, skirts, bed sheets, curtains.
Asbestos andbasalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated withTeflon to producebeta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United Statesspace suits since 1968.[105]
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production ofcloth-of-gold and jewellery.Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse wovenmesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standardwindow screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.
Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as inemery cloth, a layer ofemery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a US term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarsesandpaper.
In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finestmicrofibre made of strands thinner than onedenier to the sturdiestcanvas.
Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture ofgeotextiles. Synthetic fibres are those that are constructed by humans through chemical synthesis.
Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g.Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools,[106] including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production ofpantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade nameTyvek.
Ingeo is apolylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk orcasein fibre cloth was developed duringWorld War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.[107] Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as abiodegradable,renewable synthetic fibre.[108]
Textile manufacturing has progressed from prehistoric crafts to a fully automated industry.[75] Over the years, there have been continuous improvements in fabric structure and design.[109]
Production methods
Production method
Description
Inventors, inventions and milestones in progression
Barkcloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.[110][111]
Bark is an older known fabric; ancient people around the world wore bark cloth daily until woven fabrics replaced it. InIndonesia, the bark cloth is associated with theTorajan people, who made it from the fermentation of inner bark of certain local trees, mulberry and pandanus. The Torajans used stones and wooden beaters to produce bark cloth.[112]
Barkcloth dress of Lore Bada people in Lore Valley, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. This collection of Central Sulawesi Museum was exhibited in Textile Museum Jakarta in November 2016.
Felting is a method of manufacturing fabric directly from fibres by entangling, interlocking the fibres by mechanical action (like rubbing and pressing) and often aided by heat and moisture.[111]
Felting is another old method of fabric manufacturing. While civilizations in thewestern Mediterranean improved their weaving skills,nomads in Central Asia learned how to make felt, a non-woven material, from wool.[113][111] Felting involves applying pressure and friction to a mat of fibres, working and rubbing them together until the fibres become interlocked and tangled, forming a nonwoven textile. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.[111] More recently, additional methods have been developed to bond fibres into nonwoven fabrics, including needle punching, adhesives, and chemical binding.[113][111][7]
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longerthreads (called thewarp) with a set of crossing threads (called theweft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.[114]
Handlooms: Earlylooms date to 5000 BC. From antiquity until the mediaeval times, the loom improved in both Asia and Europe, despite the fact that the loom's fundamental operation remained unchanged.[115] In 200 BC, the Chinese invented vertical looms and pedal looms, transforming the craft into an industry. By decreasing the worker's workload, innovative solutions improved productivity.
There were harnesses andheddles to govern the movement of the warp yarn, a shuttle to transport the weft yarns, a reed to compact the cloth, and a take up roller to roll down the cloth. By the 1st century AD, all necessary components for a loom were assembled.[116]
The industrial revolution in the 18th century led to mass production of yarn and cloth, which led to the growth of the woven fabric part of the textile industry.[119]
Knitting involves interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on aknitting needle, needle, or on acrochet hook, together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop.[120]
Hand knitting: Though knitting was developed byDanes around 900 BC it did not reach to other civilizations until 900 AD.[113] Europe learned to knit by hand around 1400. Three to four stockings could be knit in a week by 1450.William Lee invented astocking frame in 1589 that could knit one stocking per day. Acceptance of Lee's invention and subsequent modifications resulted in a wide range of fabrics in Europe.[121] The machine knitting is separated into two main groups of production processes: warp knitting and weft knitting.
Loop formation. Structure of stockinette stitch in a weft knitted fabric.
Crocheting never involves more than one active stitch on the needle. Knitting can be performed by machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.[120]
Crocheting was originally practised by Scottish peasants with a small, hooked needle known as a shepherd's hook.[122]
Most crochet uses one hook and works upon one stitch at a time. Crochet may be worked in circular rounds without any specialized tools, as shown here.
Spread tow is a production method where the tow fibres are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made incarbon,aramid and other fibres.
Lace is made by interlocking threads together to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand (e.g.needle lace orbobbin lace) or machine.[125]
Bobbin lace in progress
3D Textiles
Complex interlacement of yarns where the final product has not plain form as flat fabrics, but 3D form.
All technologies - weft knitting, warp knitting, weaving and braiding allow production of complex products with 3D form if suitable machine configuration and pattern are used. This technologies are used for woven heart valves, composite profiles and other.
Fabric manufacturing by3D printer employs additive manufacturing, also known as additive layer manufacturing (ALM), aCAD-aided manufacturing technique that builds the object layer by layer. The method is used in manufacturing ofAuxetic textiles and in composite materials.[126]
3D-printed outfit
Important parameters in fabric selection:
The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the application. Similar types of fabric may not be suitable for all applications.[127]
Fabric weight is an important criteria while producing different fabrics. A carpet requires a fabric with 1300 GSM, but a robe may be made with 160 GSM. Certainly, fabrics for clothes and carpets have distinct weights.[127]
Range of fabric weights typically used in various textile products[128]
China is the largest exporter of textile goods. Most of China's exports consist of apparel, apparel accessories, textile yarns, and textile products. The competitive advantages of the China are low prices and abundant labor, lowered commercial obstacles, and a ready supply of raw materials. China, along with the United States and India, is a major producer of cotton.[132][133]
China's apparel market share has declined in recent years due to various reasons and a shift toward high-end, sophisticated products. Additionally, the investors from China made stakes in Myanmar, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Last year, its market share was 36.7%, or $161 billion, a decline of 8% year-over-year. In other words, China lost $14 billion in garment work orders to other countries in a single year. In 2016, Bangladesh's apparel market share was valued at $28 billion, increasing 7.69 percent from the previous year.
In 2016 the leading exporters of apparel were China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam ($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16 billion), Turkey ($15 billion), and Indonesia ($7 billion).[134]
Garment exports from Bangladesh reached record high in the 2021–2022 fiscal year; China ($220,302 billion), Bangladesh ($38.70 billion), India ($8.127 billion), Pakistan ($19.33 billion).[135]
Early method of bleaching cotton and linen goods on lawns
The fabric, when it leaves a loom or knitting machine, is not readily usable. It may be rough, uneven, or have flaws like skewing. Hence, it is necessary to finish the fabric. Finishing techniques enhance the value of the treated fabrics.[116] After manufacturing, textiles undergo a range of finishing procedures, including bleaching, dyeing, printing, as well as mechanical and chemical finishing.[12]
Textiles are oftendyed, with fabrics available in almost everycolour. The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.[136] Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns byresist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric.Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimesbleached, making the textile pale or white.
In textiles, colour matching extends beyond selecting the appropriate dyestuffs or pigments and combining them in precise proportions to achieve the desired end product colour.[137] Meeting criteria for fastness, cost, and quality is also essential. This process plays a critical role in materializing a designer's concept into an actual product.[137]
Textile finishing is the process of converting the loomstate or raw goods into a useful product, which can be done mechanically or chemically. Finishing is a broad term that refers to a variety of physical and chemical techniques and treatments that finish one stage of textile production while also preparing for the next. Textile finishing can include aspects like improving surface feel, aesthetical enhancement, and adding advanced chemical finishes.[12] A finish is any process that transformsunfinished products into finished products.[138] This includes mechanical finishing and chemical applications which alter the composition of treated textiles (fibre, yarn or fabric.)
Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such aspermanent press process,finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.[139] More recently,nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallicnanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.[140]
Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. Fromformaldehyde finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes, for example, have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.[141] Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.[142]
Eisengarn, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.[143][144]
Carpets, rugs, velvet,velour, andvelveteen, referred to as pile fabrics, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as anap orpile.[145]
"Shearing machine" is a machine equipped with shearing cylinder, ledger blade, fluff exhaust, and joint seam sensors. The machine operates similarly to a lawn mower.[146][147]Moleskin andvelvet are sheared materials in which pile is cut to a certain level.[148]
After the oil industry, the fashion industry is the second biggest polluter of agricultural land, which has several harmful impacts on the environment. As the industry grows, the effect on the environment is worsening.[149] Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest and most technologically complicated industries. This industry's fundamental strength stems from its solid manufacturing base of a diverse range of fibres/yarns ranging from natural fibres such as jute, silk, wool, and cotton, to synthetic or manufactured fibres that include polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic.
Textile mills and their wastewater have grown in proportion to the increase in demand for textile products, generating a severe pollution concern around the world. Numerous textile industry chemicals pose environmental and health risks. Among the compounds in textile effluent, dyes are considered significant contaminants. Water pollution generated by the discharge of untreated wastewater and the use of toxic chemicals, particularly during processing, account for the majority of the global environmental concerns linked with the textile industry.[150]
Clothing is necessary to meet the fundamental needs of humans. Increased population and living standards have increased the need for clothing, enhancing the demand for textile manufacturing; wet processing needs more water consumption.[151] Conventional machinery and treatment procedures use enormous quantities of water, especially for natural fibres, which require up to 150 kg of water per kg of material.[152]The textile sector is accountable for a substantial number of environmental impacts. However, the discharge of untreated effluents into water bodies is responsible for the majority of environmental harm produced by the textile sector.[153]
The textile sector is believed to use 79 trillion litres of water per year and to discharge around 20% of all industrial effluent into the environment.[154] Reportedly,aromatic andheterocyclic compounds with colour-display and polar groups make up most of the dyes used in textile coloration processes. The structure is more complex and stable, making it more difficult to degrade printing and dyeing wastewater.[155]
In addition, textiles constitute a significant percentage of landfill waste. In 2023,North Carolina State University researchers usedenzymes to separate cotton frompolyester in an early step towards reducing textile waste, allowing each material to be recycled.[156]
Many kinds of respiratory diseases, skin problems, and allergies may be caused by dyes and pigments discharged into the water.
Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,[158] due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.[159]
Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories. It is also possible to have textiles tested according to theOeko-tex certification standard, which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.
Different countries have certain laws and regulations to protect consumers' interests. TheTextile Fiber Products Identification Act is a law that protects consumers in the United States. The act protects producer and consumer interests by implementing labelling (required content disclosure) and advertising requirements on textile products. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act applies to all textile fibre products besides wool, which is governed by the Wool Product Label Number. The law prohibits misinformation about the fibre content, misbranding, and any unfair advertising practice, as well as requires businesses to operate in a particular manner.[167][4]
Testing occurs at various stages of the textile manufacturing process, from raw material to finished product. The purpose of testing is to evaluate and analyse the regulatory compliance, the product's quality and performance, as well as to measure its specifications. Textile testing encompasses a wide range of methodologies, procedures, equipment, and sophisticatedlaboratories. Local governments and authorized organization's such asASTM International,International Organization for Standardization, andAmerican Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists establish standards for testing of textiles.[168][169]
Some examples of tests at different stages:
For fibre: Fibre identification is a necessary test for determining fibre content and classifying products. The labelling of items with their fibre content percentage is a regulatory requirement. Usingmicroscopy, solubility, and burn tests, fibres are distinguished from one another.[170] More fibre relating tests include fibre length, diameter,Micronaire.[171]
Textiles made fromAlpaca wool at theOtavalo Artisan Market in the Andes Mountains, Ecuador
The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example of warpikat in Southeast Asia, displayed at theNational Museum of the Philippines. The cloth was most likely made by the native Asia people of northwestRomblon.
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^Lazarov, A; Cordoba, M; Plosk, N; Abraham, D (2003). "Atypical and unusual clinical manifestations of contact dermatitis to clothing (textile contact dermatitis): Case presentation and review of the literature".Dermatology Online Journal.9 (3): 1.doi:10.5070/D30KD1D259.PMID12952748.
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![Embroidered skirts by the Alfaro-Nùñez family of Cochas, Peru, using traditional Peruvian embroidery methods[174]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEmbroidery-flowers-Alfaro-Nunez.jpg)
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![Textile doll (11th century), Chancay culture, found near Lima, Walters Art Museum. Of their small size, dolls are frequently found in ancient Peruvian tombs.[175]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChancay_-_Textile_Doll_-_Walters_83768.jpg)
