(physiology) A process in which one substance permeates another. Afluid permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. Skin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin.
(biochemistry) Acetyl coenzyme A is a molecule participating in manybiochemical reactions in carbohydrate, protein and lipidmetabolism. Its main function is to deliver theacetyl group to thecitric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to beoxidized for energy production.
(evolutionary biology, population biology) Term can apply to an individual organism's adaptation to its environment, the adaptation of organisms to an environment through evolutionary processes, or the population dynamics intrisic to the evolutionary process.
(biochemistry) A class oforganic compounds containing anamine group and acarboxylic acid group which function as the fundamental building blocks ofproteins and play important roles in many other biochemical processes.
The process by which humans useanimal breeding andplant breeding toselectively control the development of particularphenotypictraits in organisms by choosing which individual organisms willreproduce and createoffspring. While the deliberate exploitation of knowledge aboutgenetics andreproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics is widely practiced inagriculture and experimental biology, artificial selection may also be unintentional and may produce unintended (desirable or undesirable) results.
An organism capable of producing complexorganic compounds from simple substances present in its surroundings, generally by using energy from sunlight (as inphotosynthesis) or from inorganic chemical reactions (as inchemosynthesis). Autotrophs do not need to consume another living organism in order to obtain energy or organic carbon, as opposed toheterotrophs.
An enormous and diverse clade of microscopic,prokaryotic, single-celled organisms which lack a truenucleus. They represent one of the three fundamental biologicaldomains.
The inactiveX chromosome in a female somatic cell, rendered inactive in a process calledlyonization, in those species in which sex isdetermined by the presence of theY chromosome (including humans) orW chromosome rather than by the presence of two X chromosomes or twoZ chromosomes.
An organelle formed from acentriole, and a short cylindrical array of microtubules. Also called abasal granule, akinetosome, and in older cytological literature, ablepharoplast.
A dark green to yellowish-brown fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates, which aids the digestion oflipids in the small intestine. Also calledgall.
A formal system of classifyingspecies of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages.
The process ofcatalysis in biological systems. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as protein enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds.
The study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area.
Organic matter derived from living or recently living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials which are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass.
Any very largeecological area on the Earth's surface containing fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined byabiotic factors such as climate, topographical relief, geology, soils, and water resources.
The study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of "mechanics", which is the branch of physics involving analysis of the actions of forces.
The pursuit of answers to medical questions. These investigations lead to discoveries, which in turn lead to the development of new preventions, therapies, and cures for problems in human and veterinary health. Biomedical research generally takes two forms: basic science and applied research.
Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity).
Abody fluid that circulates in humans and other vertebrate animals and is generally responsible for delivering necessary substances such asoxygen and nutrients between the cells and tissues of the body and transportingmetabolic waste products away from those same cells and tissues.
A semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the cerebrospinal fluid, and constituting a barrier to the passage of cells, particles, and large molecules.
The basic structural and functional unit of all livingorganisms, and the smallest functional unit oflife. A cell may exist as an independent, self-replicating unit (as in the case ofunicellular organisms), or in cooperation with other cells, each of which may be specialized for carrying out particular functions within a largermulticellular organism. Cells consist ofcytoplasm enclosed within acell membrane and sometimes acell wall, and serve the fundamental purpose of separating the controlled environment in which biochemical processes take place from the outside world. Most cells are visible only under amicroscope.
The branch of biology that studies the structure and function of livingcells, including theirphysiological properties,metabolic processes, chemical composition,life cycle, theorganelles they contain, and their interactions with their environment. This is done at bothmicroscopic andmolecular levels.
The ordered series of events which take place in acell leading toduplication of its genetic material and ultimately thedivision of thecytoplasm andorganelles to produce two or more daughter cells. These events can be broadly divided into phases of growth and division, each of which can vary in duration and complexity depending on the tissue or organism to which the cell belongs. Cell cycles are essential processes in allunicellular andmulticellular organisms.
A tough, often rigid structural barrier surrounding certain types ofcells (such as infungi,plants, and mostprokaryotes) that is immediately external to thecell membrane.
A framework for understanding the movement ofgenetic information between information-carryingbiopolymers within biological systems. Popularly (though simplistically) stated as "DNA makesRNA and RNA makesprotein", the principle attempts to capture the notion that the transfer of genetic information only naturally occurs between certain classes of molecules and in certain directions.
A chemical substance consisting of two or more differentchemically bondedelements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. The ratio of each element is usually expressed by achemical formula.
The state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time in a chemical reaction.
A branch of the physical sciences that studies the composition, structure, properties, and change ofmatter. Chemical interactions underlie all biological processes.
A type of highly specializedorganelle in the cells ofplants andalgae, the main role of which is to conductphotosynthesis, by which the photosynthetic pigmentchlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight and converts and stores it in the moleculesATP andNADPH while freeing oxygen from water.
A type oflipid molecule that isbiosynthesized by allanimal cells because it is an essential structural component of animalcell membranes, essential for maintaining both membrane structural integrity and fluidity.
Also called theKrebs cycle andtricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA).
A series of chemical reactions used by allaerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived fromcarbohydrates,fats, andproteins intocarbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form ofguanosine triphosphate (GTP). In addition, the cycle provides the chemical precursors for certainamino acids as well as the reducing agentNADH that is used in numerous other biochemical reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest established components of cellularmetabolism and may have originated abiogenically.
A scientific theory inimmunology that explains the functions of cells (lymphocytes) of theimmune system in response to specificantigens invading the body. The theory has become the widely accepted model for how the immune system responds toinfection and how certain types ofB andT lymphocytes are selected for destruction of specific antigens.[2]
The process of producing individual organisms or molecules with identical or virtually identicalDNA, either naturally or artificially. Many organisms, such asbacteria, insects, andplants, are capable of naturally producing clones throughasexual reproduction. Inbiotechnology, cloning refers to the artificial creation of copies of cells, DNA fragments, or otherbiomolecules by various laboratory techniques.
In the context of virus capsid, may refer colloquially to the defined geometric structure of a capsid, or the membrane of an endosome containing an intact virion. The coat of a virus is used in descriptions for the general public. Related slang: uncoating.
The use ofcomparative methods to study the similarities and differences between two or more biological organisms (e.g. two organisms from the same time period but differenttaxa, or two organisms from the same taxon but different times in evolutionary history). The side-by-side comparison ofmorphological ormolecular characteristics of different organisms is the basis from which biologists infer the organisms' genetic relatedness and their natural histories. It is a fundamental tool in many biological disciplines, includinganatomy,physiology,paleontology, andphylogenetics.
The scientific study of nature and of Earth'sbiodiversity with the aim of protectingspecies, theirhabitats, andecosystems from excessive rates ofextinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.
Anevolutionary process by whichspecies of different lineages independently develop similar characteristics, often to the point that the species appear to be more closely related than they actually are.
The crossover of some property, usually heat or some component, between two fluids flowing in opposite directions to each other. The phenomenon occurs naturally but is also frequently mimicked in industry and engineering.
One of the four main nitrogenous bases found in bothDNA andRNA, along withadenine,guanine,thymine, anduracil (in RNA); it is apyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2).
A complex, dynamic network of interlinkingprotein filaments that extends from thecell nucleus to thecell membrane and which is present in thecytoplasm of allcells, includingbacteria andarchaea.[3] The cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. In eukaryotes, the cytoskeletal matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.[4]
Thegenetic contribution of an individual to the nextgeneration'sgene pool relative to the average for the population, usually measured by the number ofoffspring or close kin that survive toreproductive age.
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and it is typically used inbotany in order to refer totrees orshrubs that lose theirleaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruits when ripe.
The process by which theorganic compounds of deceased organisms are broken down into simpler organic orinorganic matter such ascarbon dioxide,water, simple sugars, and mineral salts. These reactions occur naturally by bothbiotic means (biodegradation, such as that practiced by manybacteria andfungi) andabiotic means (basic physical and chemical processes, such ashydrolysis). Decomposition recycles matter present in thebiosphere, making it an essential part of thenutrient cycle. Organisms that facilitate decomposition are known asdecomposers; the scientific study of decomposition is known astaphonomy.
Anyorganism that facilitates the breakdown of dead or decaying organisms by carrying out thedecomposition of complex biomolecules into simpler substances. Decomposers areheterotrophs which obtain energy and nutrition for their own growth and reproduction by recycling the chemical compounds contained in organic substrates. Microorganisms such asbacteria andfungi are the biosphere's chief decomposers, butinvertebrates such asearthworms are also sometimes considered decomposers.
A process in whichproteins ornucleic acids lose the quaternary, tertiary, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, when exposed to some external stress or chemical compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, or an organic solvent.
The microbially facilitated process ofnitratereduction that ultimately produces molecular nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate gaseousnitrogen oxide products. It is performed by a large group of heterotrophic facultative anaerobicbacteria and is a fundamental component of thenitrogen cycle.
Anucleic acidpolymer that serves as the fundamental hereditary material in all living organisms. Each DNA molecule is composed of long sequences ofnucleotides, each of which includes one of fournitrogenous bases –adenine (abbreviated A),cytosine (C),guanine (G), andthymine (T) – attached to a sugar-phosphate complex which acts as a "backbone" for the long-chain polymer. DNA most commonly occurs in "double-stranded" form, i.e. as a pair of nucleotide polymers bound together bycomplementarybase pairing.
The process of reversing the charge across acell membrane (such as that of aneuron), thereby causing anaction potential. In depolarization, the inside of the membrane, which is normally negatively charged, becomes positive and the outside becomes negative. This is brought about by positively chargedsodium ions rapidly passing into theaxon.
The branch of biology that studies the processes by which living organisms grow and develop over time. The field may also encompass the study ofreproduction,regeneration,metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation ofstem cells in mature tissues.
Any particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of a living organism and that is not the result of any immediate external injury. Diseases are medical conditions that are often identifiable by specificsigns andsymptoms. They may be caused by external factors such as infectiouspathogens or by internal dysfunctions such as immune deficiency orsenescence.
The chemical duplication or copying of aDNA molecule; the process of producing two identical copies from one original DNA molecule, in which thedouble helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template for the next strand. Complementary nucleotide bases are matched to synthesize the new partner strands.
Any substance that causes a change in an organism'sphysiology orpsychology when consumed. Drugs may be naturally occurring or artificially produced, and consumption may occur in a number of different ways. Drugs are typically distinguished from substances that provide nutritional support such as food.
dimorphism
The existence of amorphological distinction between organisms of the samespecies, such that individuals of that species occur in one of two distinct forms which differ in one or more characteristics, such as colour, size, shape, or any otherphenotypic trait. Dimorphism based on sex – e.g. male vs. female – is common insexually reproducing organisms such as plants and animals.
The efficiency with whichenergy is transferred from onetrophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in anecosystem.
The scientific analysis and study of interactions betweenorganisms and theirenvironment. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines concepts from biology,geography, andEarth science.
In evolutionary ecology, a genetically distinct geographic variety,population, orrace within aspecies which is adapted to specific environmental conditions.
The outermost layer of cells or tissue of anembryo in early development, or the parts derived from this, which include theepidermis, nerve tissue, andnephridia.
Anorganism in which internalphysiological sources of heat are of relatively small or quite negligible importance in controllingbody temperature compared to ambient sources of heat. Ectotherms generally experience changes in body temperature that closely match changes in the temperature of their environment; colloquially, these organisms are often referred to as "cold-blooded". Contrastendotherm.
Conducted or conducting outwards or away from something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied). Contrastafferent.
The organic vessel containing thezygote in which an animalembryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the developing organism emerges from the egg in a process known ashatching.
A gradient ofelectrochemical potential, usually for anion that can move across amembrane. The gradient consists of two parts: the electrical potential and the difference in chemical concentration across the membrane.
Any chemical entity that acceptselectrons transferred to it from another chemical entity. It is anoxidizing agent that, by virtue of its accepting electrons, is itselfreduced in the process. Contrastelectron donor.
Any of various molecules that are capable of accepting one or two electrons from one molecule and donating them to another in the process ofelectron transport. As the electrons are transferred from one electron carrier to another, their energy level decreases, and energy is released.
A chemical entity that donates electrons to another chemical entity. It is areducing agent that, by virtue of its giving up its electrons, is itselfoxidized in the process. Contrastelectron acceptor.
A type ofmicroscope that uses a beam ofelectrons to create an image of a sample or specimen. Electron microscopes are capable of much higher magnifications and have greater resolving power than conventional light microscopes, allowing them to see much smaller objects in finer detail.
The branch of biology that studies the development ofgametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development ofembryos andfetuses. Additionally, embryology involves the study ofcongenital disorders that occur before birth.
Anyspecies which is very likely to becomeextinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular area. Such species may be threatened by factors such as habitat loss, hunting, disease, and climate change, and most have a declining population or a very limited range.
The ecological state of an organism or species being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country, habitat type, or other defined zone. Organisms are said to beendemic to a place if they are indigenous to it and found nowhere else.
The collection ofglands that producehormones which regulatemetabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and a wide variety of other biological processes.
A form ofactive transport in which a cell transports molecules such asproteins into the cell's interior by engulfing them in an energy-consuming process.
One of the three primary germ layers in the very early humanembryo. The other two layers are theectoderm (outside layer) andmesoderm (middle layer), with the endoderm being the innermost layer.
A type oforganelle found ineukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known ascisternae.
An evolutionary theory regarding the origin ofeukaryotic cells from a hypothetical internalsymbiosis betweenprokaryotic organisms, first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanistKonstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence byLynn Margulis in 1967.
An organism that is capable of maintaining a consistent,metabolically favorablebody temperature, largely by the recycling of heat released by its internalphysiological functions, instead of by relying on ambient sources of heat. Endotherms are generally able to maintain a stable body temperature despite changes in the temperature of their environment; colloquially, these organisms are often referred to as "warm-blooded". Contrastectotherm.
Aprotein that acts as a biologicalcatalyst by accelerating chemical reactions.Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze their individual steps, and almost all metabolic processes requireenzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.
The study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health anddisease conditions in definedpopulations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare.
A sub-field ofgenetics that studies cellular and physiological phenotypic trait variations caused by external or environmental factors which affect how cellsexpressgenes, as opposed to those caused by changes in theDNA sequence.
An organism that grows on the surface of aplant and derives moisture andnutrients from the air, rain, marine environments, or from debris accumulating around it.
Anutrient required for normalphysiological function which cannot be synthesized by a particular organism, either at all or in sufficient quantities, and which therefore must be obtained from external sources such as food. In humans, a set of nineamino acids, twofatty acids, thirteenvitamins, and fifteenminerals are considered essential nutrients.
The scientific study of non-human animal behaviour (i.e. excluding human behaviour) and usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait.
A type of organism consisting of cells which have anucleus enclosed within a distinctnuclear membrane, unlikeprokaryotes. Eukaryotes include all organisms except the bacteria and archaea (i.e. all plants, animals, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes).
The subfield of biology that studiesevolution and the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth from a hypothesized singlecommon ancestor. These processes include the descent ofspecies and the origin of new species.
A form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell by expelling them through an energy-dependent process.
(of a substance or process) Originating outside of or external to a system (such as an organism, tissue, or cell), as withdrugs and manypathogens. Contrastendogenous.
It is exhibited when the rate of change of the value of a mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value, resulting in its value at any time being an exponential function of time.
The termination of the existence of a particular kind oforganism or a particulartaxon, often aspecies, as a result of the death of the last individual of the taxon (though the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point, rendering the taxonfunctionally extinct).
An organism which is capable of producingenergy throughaerobic respiration and then switching toanaerobic respiration depending on the amounts of oxygen and fermentable material in the environment.
An open hole that is present in extant or extinct amniotes. Foramina inside the body of animals typically allow muscles, nerves, arteries, veins, or other structures to connect one part of the body with another.
A family ofproteins that act as molecular switches insidecells, and are implicated in transmitting signals from a diversity of stimuli outside a cell to its interior.
Any segment ofDNA that contains the information necessary to produce a functionalRNA and/orprotein product in a controlled manner. Genes are often considered the fundamental molecular units ofheredity. The transmission of genes from a parent cell or organism to itsoffspring is the basis of the inheritance ofphenotypic traits.
Variations ofgenomes between members of species, or between groups of species thriving in different parts of the world as a result ofgenetic mutation. Genetic diversity in a population or species is a result of new gene combinations (e.g.crossing over of chromosomes), genetic mutations,genetic drift, etc.
An organ found in thedigestive tract of some animals, includingarchosaurs (pterosaurs, crocodiles, alligators, and dinosaurs, including birds), earthworms, somegastropods, somefish, and somecrustaceans.
Any member of a class of signaling molecules produced byglands inmulticellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.
Any living organism that harbors another living organism (known as a "guest" orsymbiont), whether the guest isparasitic,mutualistic, orcommensalist in its interactions with the host. The guest typically receives shelter and nourishment from the host.
An organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups called hydrocarbyls.
The branch of biology devoted to the study offish, including bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha).
Any of a class ofglycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells (white blood cells) which act as a critical part of the immune response by specifically recognizing and binding to particularantigens, such as bacteria or viruses, and aiding in their destruction. They are a major component of the group of immune defense molecules collectively calledantibodies.
The invasion of an organism's cells or tissues by adisease-causingpathogen, its growth and/or multiplication, and the reaction of thehost organism to the infectious agent and thetoxins it produces. The variety of biological pathogens capable of causing infections includes certainbacteria,viruses,fungi,protists,parasitic worms, andarthropods.
An anabolic peptide hormone produced in thepancreas which helps to regulate themetabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein by promoting the absorption ofglucose from the blood into liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells. Abnormal insulin activity is the cause ofdiabetes mellitus.
A group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their antiviral defenses.
(French:Système international d'unités; abbreviated SI) The modern standardized form of the metric system of units and measurements, and the system of measurement formally adopted for use in the physical and natural sciences.
Also called anexotic species,foreign species,alien species,non-native species, ornon-indigenous species.
Anyspecies living outside itsnative geographicrange, and which has arrived there either by accidental or deliberate human activity. Such human-caused introduction of species to foreign environments is distinguished from biologicalcolonization, by which species spread to new areas through "natural" means (i.e. without the involvement of humans).
A group ofanimals that have no backbone, unlike animals such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds, and mammals, which all have a backbone. Among the many extant invertebratephyla are theCnidaria,Mollusca,Annelida,Nematoda, andArthropoda.
A type of chemical bond involving the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between two atoms. Such bonds typically occur between elements characterized as metals and nonmetals, and generate two oppositely charged ions: the metal loses electrons to become a positively chargedcation, and the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively chargedanion.
A molecule with the same chemical formula as another molecule, but with a different chemical structure. That is, isomers contain the same number of atoms of each element, but have different arrangements of their atoms.
Refers to two solutions having the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable membrane. This state allows for the free movement of water across the membrane without changing the concentration of solutes on either side.
A distinct juvenile form manyanimals undergo beforemetamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development, such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians, typically have a larval phase of theirlife cycle.
The principle, originally formulated byGregor Mendel, stating that when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together.
A colourless cell of theimmune system which circulates in theblood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances anddisease. There are several types of leukocytes, all amoeboid cells with a nucleus, includinglymphocytes,granulocytes, andmonocytes.
The characteristic or collection of characteristics that distinguishes physical entities that undergo biological processes (e.g. living organisms) from that those do not (e.g. non-living, inanimate matter), either because such processes have ceased or because they were not present in the first place. What constitutes "life" is notoriously difficult to define, and there is currently no consensus definition, though some popular criteria are that living things are composed ofcells, have alife cycle, undergometabolism, maintainhomeostasis,adapt to environments, respond tostimuli,reproduce, andevolve.Biology is the scientific study of life and of living organisms.
The fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones and is also known asarticular ligament,articular larua,fibrous ligament, ortrue ligament.
Any set of one or moregenes which are sufficiently close together on the same chromosome that they are very unlikely to assort independently and therefore are usually inherited together.
A substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells. Cholesterol and triglycerides are lipids.
A biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids, bound to the proteins, which allow fats to move through the water inside and outside cells. The proteins serve to emulsify the lipid molecules.
Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle – the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell.
Evolution on a scale of separated gene pools. Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species, in contrast with microevolution, which refers to smaller evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population.
A very large molecule, such as a protein, commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers). They are typically composed of thousands or more atoms.
Nutrients needed in large amounts which provide calories or energy. Nutrients are substances needed for growth, metabolism, and for other body functions. There are three basic types of macronutrients: fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
A kind of swallowing cell, which means it functions by literally swallowing up other particles or smaller cells. Macrophages engulf and digest debris (such as dead cells) and foreign particles through the process ofphagocytosis, so macrophages act like scavengers.
The branch of biology that studiesmammals, a class ofvertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems.
The study of organisms in the ocean or other marine bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy.
A cell filled with basophil granules, found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions.
A specialized type ofcell division in which a dividing parent cell proceeds through two consecutive divisions, ultimately producing four genetically unique daughter cells in each of which thechromosome number is half of that in the original parent cell. This process is exclusive to cells of the sex organs insexually reproducingeukaryotes, where it serves the purpose of generatinggametes such aseggs,sperm, orspores.
When a nerve or muscle cell is at "rest", its membrane potential is called the resting membrane potential. In a typical neuron, this is about –70 millivolts (mV). The minus sign indicates that the inside of the cell is negative with respect to the surrounding extracellular fluid.
The third phase of mitosis, in which duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell is separated into two identical daughter cells. During metaphase, the cell's chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell through a type of cellular "tug of war".
The study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and protozoa. This discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents.
The smallest particle in a chemical element or compound that has the chemical properties of that element or compound. Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. These bonds form as a result of the sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms.
The branch of biology concerning biological activity at the molecular level. The field of molecular biology overlaps with biology and chemistry and in particular with genetics and biochemistry.
A neuron whose cell body is situated in the motorcortex,brain stem, or thespinal cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands.
The branch of biology concerned with the study offungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection.
A process in nature in which organisms possessing certaingenotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number orfrequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to succeeding generations.
The role and position an organism or taxon fills within its environment; how it meets its needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces. A species' niche includes all of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment.
The chemical process by which molecularnitrogen (N2) in the air is converted intoammonia (NH3) or related nitrogenous compounds, typically by specialized microorganisms in soil and aquatic ecosystems but also by certain non-biological processes. Despite comprising nearly 80% of the gas in the Earth's atmosphere, diatomic nitrogen is metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms, known asdiazotrophs. Nitrogen fixation is essential to all life on Earth because fixed inorganic nitrogenous compounds are required for thebiosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing organic compounds, includingamino acids andnucleic acids.
The nitrogen-containing biological compounds that formnucleosides, which in turn are components ofnucleotides, with all of these monomers constituting the basic building blocks of nucleic acids.
An organic compound which serves as the fundamentalmonomer used in the construction ofnucleic acid polymers, such asDNA andRNA, both of which are essential biomolecules within all living organisms.
The spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.
The study of the history of life on Earth as reflected in thefossil record. Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms that lived in the geological past and have been preserved in the Earth's crust.
The study ofparasites, theirhosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question, but by their way of life.
In the broadest sense, anything that can producedisease, though the term is most commonly used to refer specifically to an infectiousmicroscopic organism such as avirus,bacterium,protozoan, or another microbial agent which causes disease for ahost organism by invading the host's tissues.
A medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis ofdisease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such asblood andurine, as well astissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology, and molecular pathology.
A numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of an aqueous solution. It is roughly the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions.
The science ofdrug action on biological systems. In its entirety, it embraces knowledge of the sources, chemical properties, biological effects, and therapeutic uses of drugs.
The composite of an organism's observable features or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior.
A secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the samespecies. Pheromones are analogous tohormones acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of receiving individuals.
The process by which nearly allplants and somealgae andbacteria convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy, which is used to synthesizecarbohydrates such assugars fromcarbon dioxide and water; these carbohydrates are stored as food, and the energy within them is later released to fuelmetabolic activities. Organisms that perform photosynthesis are thereforeautotrophs. Photosynthesis supplies the majority of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
The transfer ofpollen from a male part of a plant to a female part of a plant, enabling later fertilisation and the production of seeds. Pollen is most commonly transported by animals or by wind.
A technique used inmolecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment ofDNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particularDNA sequence.
A subfield ofecology that deals with the dynamics of speciespopulations and how these populations interact with the environment. It is the study of how the population sizes of species change over time and space.
Also calledbehavioral neuroscience,biological psychology, andbiopsychology.
The application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.
The process of renewal, restoration, and growth that makesgenomes,cells,organisms, andecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage. For example, many organisms are capable of regeneratingtissues and even entire body parts if they are lost or destroyed.
The biological process by which one or more new individualorganisms (known asoffspring) is produced from an existingparent organism. Reproduction is a defining characteristic of alllife, and every individual organism exists as the result of a reproductive event. There are two general methods by which reproduction takes place:sexual orasexual.
The branch of biology that studies the various types and mechanisms ofreproduction used by living organisms, typically with special emphasis oncell division,fertility,endocrinology, and/or thetissues,organs, and systems involved in reproduction.
1. Generally, lacking motility or means of self-locomotion; immobile or incapable of movement. Sessile organisms may move via external forces such as wind or water currents but are more often permanently fixed to a solid object such as a rock, soil, or another organism.
2. Inbotany, the property of aplant or plant part that is attached directly by its base to an object or another plant part, i.e. without an interveningstem, stalk, orpetiole.
A branch of biology that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted fromevolution and which attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context.
The basic unit of biological classification and the narrowest of the canonicaltaxonomic ranks, as well as a unit ofbiodiversity. Species are traditionally distinguished on the basis ofreproductive compatibility, though achieving a satisfactory definition that is universally applicable to all life has proven difficult, since many organisms classified as distinct "species" are capable of interbreeding with different (albeit closely related) species, generatinghybrids.
A type of undifferentiated or partially undifferentiatedcell that is capable of differentiating into other types of specialized cells and also capable ofdividing to produce more of the same type of stem cell. Stem cells are the earliest type of cell in acell lineage.
A genetic variant, subtype, orculture identified as a distincttaxonomic subdivision within aspecies. The term is most commonly used to identify particular types ofbacteria andviruses.
Any close and long-term interaction between two different biologicalorganisms, regardless of the nature or degree of the effect on either organism. Examples includemutualism,commensalism, andparasitism.
The scientific study ofbiodiversity. It is concerned with the discovering and naming of newspecies of organisms (nomenclature) and arranging thesetaxa into classification schemes (taxonomy). A large part of modern systematics is concerned with understanding the evolutionary relationships between various taxa (phylogenetics) using methods ofcomparative biology (e.g.physiology, behavior, biochemistry,morphology,genetics) and statistical analysis.
A group of one or more populations of anorganism or organisms used bytaxonomists to classify organisms into discrete, convenient, and identifiable units.
The decomposition of a viral capsid. An informal and simplified description of the way a virus infectious material enters the cell, usually appearing in light science material for the general public.
The retention during the process ofevolution of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function in a givenspecies.
A submicroscopic, infectious,parasitic particle of genetic material contained in a protein coat and which replicates only inside the living cell of ahost organism.
The branch of biology that studies theanimal kingdom, including thestructure,embryology,evolution,classification, habits, and geographical distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with theirecosystems.
^Hardin J, Bertoni G, Kleinsmith LJ (2015).Becker's World of the Cell (8th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 422–446.ISBN978013399939-6.
^McKinley, Michael; Dean O'Loughlin, Valerie; Pennefather-O'Brien, Elizabeth; Harris, Ronald (2015).Human Anatomy (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Education. p. 29.ISBN978-0-07-352573-0.
