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Expansionism refers to states obtaining greater territory through militaryempire-building (e.g.imperialism) orcolonialism.[1][2] In the classical age ofconquest moral justification for territorial expansion at the direct expense of another established polity was often as unapologetic as "because we can", treading on the philosophical grounds of "might makes right".[citation needed]
As political conceptions of thenation state evolved, especially in reference to the inherentrights of the governed, more complex justifications arose.State-collapse anarchy,reunification orpan-nationalism are sometimes used to justify and legitimize expansionism when the explicit goal is to reconquer territories that have been lost or to take over ancestral lands.[citation needed] Lacking a viable historical claim of this nature, would-be expansionists may instead promote ideologies of promised lands, perhaps tinged with a self-interested pragmatism that targeted lands will eventually belong to the potential invader anyway.[3]
Ibn Khaldun wrote that newly established dynasties, because they havesocial cohesion orAsabiyyah, are able to seek "expansion to the limit."[4] The Soviet economistNikolai Kondratiev theorized that capitalism advances in 50-year expansion/stagnation cycles, driven by technological innovation. The UK, Germany, the US, Japan and now China have been at the forefront of successive waves.Crane Brinton inThe Anatomy of Revolution saw the revolution as a driver of expansionism in, for example,Russia under Stalin, the United States and the Napoleonic Empire.Christopher Booker believed thatwishful thinking can generate a "dream phase" of expansionism such as in theEuropean Union, which is short-lived and unreliable. According to a 2023 study, important historical instances of territorial expansion have frequently happened because actors on the periphery of a state have acted without authorization from their superiors at the center of the state. Leaders subsequently find it difficult to withdraw from the newly captured areas due to "sunk costs, domestic political pressure, and national honor."[5]
Every part of the world has experienced expansionism.[6][7] The religiousimperialism andcolonialism of Islam started with theearly Muslim conquests, was followed by the religiousCaliphate expansionisms, and ended with thePartition of the Ottoman Empire. In the 15th and 16th centuries, theOttoman Empire entered aperiod of expansion. The Ottomans ended theEastern Roman Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 byMehmed the Conqueror.[8]
The militarist and nationalistic reign of RussianCzar Nicholas I (1825–1855) led to wars of conquest againstPersia (1826–1828) andTurkey (1828–1829). Various rebel tribes in theCaucasus region were crushed. APolish revolt in 1830 was ruthlessly crushed. Russian troops in 1848 crossed intoAustria-Hungary to put down theHungarian Revolt.Russification policies were implemented to weaken minority ethnic groups.Pan-Slavist solidarity led to further war with the Ottoman Empire (thesick man of Europe) in 1853 provoked Britain and Franceinto invading Crimea.[9]
In Italy,Benito Mussolini sought to create a New Roman Empire, based around theMediterranean. Italy invadedEthiopia as early as 1935,Albania in early 1938, and later Greece.Spazio vitale ("living space") was the territorial expansionist concept ofItalian Fascism. It was analogous to Nazi Germany's concept ofLebensraum and the United States' concept of "Manifest Destiny". Fascist ideologistGiuseppe Bottai likened this historic mission to the deeds of theancient Romans.[10]
After 1937,Nazi Germany under Hitler laid claim toSudetenland, unification (Anschluss) with Austria in 1938 and the occupation of the whole of the Czech lands the following year. After war broke out, Hitler and Stalin divided Poland between Germany and theSoviet Union. In aDrang nach Osten aimed at achievingLebensraum for the German people, Germanyinvaded the Soviet Union in 1941.[11]
Expansionist nationalism is an aggressive and radical form ofnationalism that incorporates autonomous patriotic sentiments with a belief in expansionism. The term was coined during the late 19th century as European powers indulged in theScramble for Africa, but it has been most associated with militarist governments during the 20th century includingFascist Italy,Nazi Germany, theEmpire of Japan, and theBalkan countries ofAlbania (Greater Albania),Bulgaria (Greater Bulgaria),Croatia (Greater Croatia),Hungary (Greater Hungary),Romania (Greater Romania) andSerbia (Greater Serbia).
In American politics after theWar of 1812,Manifest Destiny was the ideological movement during America's expansionWest. The movement incorporated expansionist nationalism with continentalism, with theMexican War in 1846–1848 being attributed to it. Despite championing American settlers and traders as the people whom the government's military would be aiding, the Bent, St. Vrain and Company stated to be the most influential Indian trading company before the Mexican War, underwent a decline because of the and of traffic from American settlers by Beyreis. The company also lost the partner Charles Bent on January 19, 1847, to a riot caused by the Mexican War. Many in theCheyennes, Comanches, Kiowas, and Pawnees tribes died from smallpox in 1839–1840, measles and whooping cough in 1845, and cholera in 1849, which had been brought by American settlers. The buffalo herds, sparse grasses, and rare waters were also depleted following the war as increased traffic by settlers moving to California during theGold Rush.[12]
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The Government of Azerbaijan has advanced expansionist territorial claims to internationally recognized sovereign territories, including regions of Iran[14] and significant portions,[15] up to and including the entirety, of Armenia.[16][17][18] These claims have been promoted under various labels, such as "Greater Azerbaijan",[19] "Whole Azerbaijan", "Southern Azerbaijan",[20] Expansionist claims targeting specifically Armenian territory include the "Goyche-Zangezur Republic", the "Republic of Irevan",[21] "the Great Return",[18][22] the "Zangezur Corridor",[23] and "Western Azerbaijan".[15]
ThePeople's Republic of China has been described as expansionist through its operations and claims in theSouth China Sea, which are concurrently claimed in part byVietnam, thePhilippines,Brunei,Malaysia and theRepublic of China.[24]
Israel was established on May 14, 1948, following the end ofWorld War II and theHolocaust. Its government hasoccupied theWest Bank, theGaza Strip, theGolan Heights, and theSinai Peninsula since theSix-Day War, although the Sinai was later returned to Egypt in 1982.[25][26][27] Israel alsooccupied southernLebanon from February 1985 to May 2000.[28]
Iran, the largestShi'ite state, has extended its influence across the Middle East, specifically Yemen, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon by arming local militias.[29]
Russia underVladimir Putin has been described as expansionist, especially since the 2010s.[30] Putin said that thedissolution of the Soviet Union had "robbed" Russia of territories and made Russians "the biggest ethnic group in the world to be divided by borders", calling this an "outrageous historical injustice".[31][32] Russiaoccupies parts of three neighboring countries. In 2008 Russiainvaded Georgia andoccupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia. In 2014 itoccupied and thenannexed Crimea from Ukraine. In 2022 it launched a fullinvasion of Ukraine andannexed its southeastern provinces. Meanwhile, Russia has establisheddomination over Belarus.[33] The Russian state is also accused ofneo-colonialism in Africa, mainly through theactivities of the Wagner Group and Africa Corps.[34][35]
Turkey's foreign policy is characterized, especially since 2010s by an aggressive expansionism,irredentism andinterventionism in theEastern Mediterranean and the neighboringCyprus,Greece,Iraq,Syria, as well as inAfrica, includingLibya, andNagorno-Karabakh.[a] Turkey has occupied foreign territories and stationed troops in them, following the 1974Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the 2016Turkish occupation of northern Syria, the2018 Turkish presence in northern Iraq[42] and following the2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War.
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Donald Trump, the incumbentpresident of the United States, has stated in the lead-up to hissecond inauguration proposed plans and ideas that would expand the United States' political influence and territory.[43] Thelast territory acquired by the United States came in 1947 with theMariana,Caroline andMarshall Islands. In December 2024, Trump stated a furtherproposal for the United States to purchase Greenland from Denmark, describing ownership and control of the island as "an absolute necessity" for national security purposes. This builds upon a prior offer from Trump to buy Greenland during his first term, which theDanish Realm refused, causing him to cancel his August 2019 visit to Denmark.[44] In 2024, Trump demanded thatPanama return control of thePanama Canal to the United States due to 'excessive rates' being charged for American passage.[45] If the United States were to take control of the Panama Canal, it would mark the first time the United States controlled Panamanian territory since theUnited States invasion of Panama.[46]
On January 7, 2025, Trump's sonDonald Trump Jr. visited Greenland's capital cityNuuk alongsideCharlie Kirk to hand outMAGA hats.[47] At a press conference the following day, Trump refused to rule out military or economic force order to take over Greenland or the Panama Canal;[48] however, he ruled out military force in taking over Canada.[48] On January 14, theNelk Boys also visited Nuuk, handing outdollar bills to locals.[49] On January 16, the CEOs of major Danish companies Novo Nordisk,Vestas andCarlsberg among others were assembled for a crisis meeting in theMinistry of State to discuss the situation.[50][51] On the subsequent day, former chief executiveFriis Arne Petersen in the DanishMinistry of Foreign Affairs described the situation as "historically unheard of", whileNoa Redington, special adviser to former prime ministerHelle Thorning-Schmidt, compared the international pressure on Denmark that during the 2005Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy.[52] Political commentatorHenrik Qvortrup stated on the 17th that a mention of Greenland during Trump's inaugural address on January 20 would confirm Trump's seriousness, definitely making the situation the biggest international crisis for Denmark sinceWorld War II.[53]
In the 19th century, theories of racial unity evolved such asPan-Germanism,Pan-Slavism, andPan-Turkism and the relatedTuranism. In each case, the dominant nation (respectively,Prussia; theRussian Empire;[54] and theOttoman Empire, especially underEnver Pasha) used those theories to legitimise their expansionist policies.
In terms of explaining the results of American expansion, this goes back to the 19th century whenFrederick Jackson Turner produced hisFrontier Thesis which made the case for the decisive role of American expansionism.[55][56] The free land enabled economic independence (as opposed to political dominance by landlords in Europe) and popular democracy in America.[57] The success of expansionism led to a deep belief in the superiority of the "American way of life," as shown by how it attracted tens of millions of immigrants. Economic success was supplemented by the confidence that Anglo Saxons were simply better at governing a nation.[58]
Further expansion far beyond the American continent, in thePhilippines, at the turn of the century which was driven by a paternalistic United States as McKinley's objectives, he declared in mid-1899, were fourfold: "Peace first, then a government of law and order honestly administered, full security to life, property, and occupation under the Stars and Stripes."[59] However, the Philippines government was shared with the local political elite, which called for independence. In Washington Democrats rejected McKinley-style expansionism and in 1934 set the Philippines on the path to independence, which was achieved in 1946.[60]
George Orwell's satirical novelAnimal Farm is a fictional depiction, based onSoviet Union under Stalin, of a new elite seizing power, establishing new rules and hierarchies, and expanding economically while they compromise their ideals.Robert Erskine Childers's novelThe Riddle of the Sands portrays the threatening nature of the German Empire.Elspeth Huxley's novelRed Strangers shows the effects on local culture of colonial expansion intoSub-Saharan Africa.Philip K. Dick's novelThe Man in the High Castle portrays a fictional version of theUnited States, which has been divided betweenNazi Germany and theEmpire of Japan. The portrayal is also shown in thetelevision adaptation of the book.
At this point, however, we must define 'expansionism' a little more precisely. I am interpreting it to mean a desire to annex additional territory either[...]
- for the sake of morelebensraum (living space) or resources (oil, copper, timber, etc.);
- for the sake of demonstrating the national power so as to intimidate neighbours;
- because of an ideology of national greatness, power
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)Additionally, Baku is advancing its "Western Azerbaijan" narrative through a state-sponsored organization of the same name, laying expansionist claims to 60 percent of Armenia's territory.
Baku's expansionist rhetoric, which now refers to Armenia as "Western Azerbaijan," appears particularly menacing. The concept emerged in December 2022, two months after Pashinyan recognized Nagorno-Karabakh as part of Azerbaijan. Today, it is everywhere. "An Azerbaijani website, a television channel and a department at Baku State University are all named 'Western Azerbaijan,'" the researcher said. Since 2023, the theory has also appeared in history textbooks. "The new Azerbaijani generation is being raised to believe that Armenia is Azerbaijani!" said Hayrapetyan.
The expansionist tendencies of Azerbaijan share similarities with the expansionism seen in other genocide perpetrators. Azerbaijan's first target is the Republic of Artsakh Aliyev's discourse regarding what it calls "historic Azerbaijan" includes so-called Western and Eastern Azerbaijans. During its two-decade old reign, Ilham Aliyev has often referred to 'Western Azerbaijan' as the Republic of Armenia.
International experts highlight Azerbaijan's territorial expansionism. Stefan Meister, head of the Centre for Order and Governance in Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia at the German Council on Foreign Relations, explained. 'It's part of this maximalist approach: you're hungry so you never stop eating if no one draws a red line.' Meister urged Western governments to impose sanctions on Baku. Lack of consequences has led Aliyev to become so emboldened by his ahistorical, expansionist ideology that he announced a 'Great Return Program' in which 140,000 Azerbaijanis will live in Syunik and Artsakh.
If the concept of Azerbaijanism in the Soviet era, in terms of the narrative of expansionism, declared the northwestern part of Iran as part of the ʹhistorical motherlandʹ of Azerbaijanis, under the name ʹSouthern Azerbaijanʹ, then in the post-Soviet period, the territory of Armenia is added to this, already under the term ʹWestern Azerbaijanʹ.
Armenia says the ["Great Return"] plan amounts to a territorial claim, while domestic critics say it is meant as a nationalist distraction to the country's real problems.
For Azerbaijan, however, this corridor has taken on an explicitly expansionist dimension, with the government now making further territorial claims over Armenia's southern province of Syunik.
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