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InChristianity,exorcism involves the practice of casting out one or moredemons from a person whom they believe to have been possessed by demons. The person performing theexorcism, known as anexorcist, is often a member of theChristian Church, or an individual thought to begraced with special powers or skills. The exorcist may use prayers and religious material, such as set formulas,gestures,symbols,icons, oramulets. The exorcist often invokesGod,Jesus,angels andarchangels, and varioussaints to aid with the exorcism. Christian exorcists most commonly cast out demons in Jesus'name.[1]
The concepts of demonic possession and exorcism are found in theBible and were practiced by theearly Christians, especially gaining prominence in the2nd century.[2][3]
In general,people considered to be possessed are not regarded asevil in themselves, nor whollyresponsible for their actions, because possession is considered to be manipulation of an unwilling victim by a demon resulting in harm to self or others. Accordingly, practitioners regard exorcism as more of a cure than a punishment. The mainstreamrituals usually take this into account, making sure that there is no violence to the possessed, only that they be tied down if there is potential for violence.[4] However, some believe possession is a voluntary act, where individuals permit demons to subjugate them.[5][6]
TheCatholic Encyclopedia says that there is only one apparent case of this demonic possession in theOld Testament, ofKingSaul being tormented by an "evil spirit" (1 Samuel 16:14), but it relies on a reading of the Hebrew word "rûah" as "evil spirit", an interpretation doubted by theCatholic Encyclopedia.[7] TheCatholic Encyclopedia ties exorcism methods mentioned inextra-canonical Jewish literature to the driving off of a demon in theBook of Tobias.[8] Some theologians such as Ángel Manuel Rodríguez say thatmediums like the ones mentioned inLeviticus 20:27 were possessed by demons.[9]
David Bar-Cohn states that authors of thePriestly Law believed in demons but "de-mythologized" them as nameless, destructive forces that were underYHWH's control.[10] Likewise, the Torah criticizes as superstitious the belief thatisha katlanit (twice-widowed women) possessed demonic powers so they could kill their husbands (e.g.Judah refusing to marryShelah toTamar, whose previous husbands died due to sin).[11]
Israelite belief in demons derived from their semi-nomadic ancestors, who believed demons could be warded off with sacrificial blood. This belief was subsequently preserved in holidays such asPassover.[12]
Christian exorcism is founded on the belief that Jesus commanded his followers to expel evil spirits inhis name.[13] TheCatholic Encyclopedia article onExorcism says Jesus points to this ability as a sign of hisMessiahship, and that he has empowered hisdisciples to do the same.[8]
TheLutheran Church–Missouri Synod traces the practice of exorcism to the Scriptural claim thatJesus Christ expelled demons with a simple command (Mark 1:23–26; 9:14–29; Luke 11:14–26).[14] Theapostles continued the practice with the power and in the name of Jesus (Matthew 10:1; Acts 19:11–16).[14]
TheJewish Encyclopedia article on Jesus states that Jesus, "was devoted especially to casting out demons," and also believed that he passed this on to his followers; however, "his superiority to his followers was shown by his casting out demons which they had failed to expel."[15]
Matthew Poole believes demon possessions were more common in the New Testament so that Jesus could prove his authority over demons to audiences. He also believes God allowed these possessions to correct the 'error' of theSadducees, who did not believe in spirits.[16] But Reed Carlson argues that belief in demon possession has roots in earlier Israelite literature. Israelites believed that possession was "a corporate and cultivated practice that can function as social commentary and as a means to model the moral self".[6]
St. Cyril of Jerusalem wrote, "Receive the exorcisms with devotion...Divine exorcisms, borrowed from the Scripture, purify the soul."[17]
TheFirst Epistle to the Corinthians in 11:10, according to the early Church FatherTertullian, referenced theWatchers.[18] Tertullian taught that the lust of the Watchers was the reason forSaint Paul's directive to Christian women to wear aheadcovering for protection.[18] Tertullian referenced the case of a woman who was touched on the neck by a fallen angel "who found her to be a temptation".[19]
TheBenedictine formulaVade retro satana has been used since themedieval era.
As emphasis on holy items in churches grew over the course of the medieval era,Benedict of Aniane, in hisSupplementum to theGregorian Sacramentary, suggested exorcism as a means of purifying salt and water for use inHoly Water, in turn used for regular benedictions but also human exorcisms. These material exorcisms were directly addressed at the subject substances, in this instance, at water:
I exorcise you creature of water in the name of God the omnipotent Father, and in the name of Jesus Christ his son, our lord, that you should become exorcized water for the routing of every power of the enemy and to eradicate and uproot the enemy himself with his apostate angels, through the power of our lord.[20]
Lollardy opposed the practice of exorcisms.The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards written in 1395 asserts that the exorcisms and hallowings carried out by priests are a sort ofwitchcraft and are incompatible with Christian theology.
In the 15th century, Catholicexorcists were both clerical andlay, since every Christian has the power to command demons and drive them out in the name of Christ.[21]
TheRoman Missal promulgated byPope Paul V contained the Latin exorcism titledDe exorcizzandis obsessiis a daemonio ("On the exorcism of the people possessed by Satan").[22]
After theProtestant Reformation,Martin Luther abbreviated the Roman ritual used for exorcism.[23] In 1526, the ritual was further abbreviated and theexsufflation was omitted. This form of theLutheran Ritual for Exorcism was incorporated into the majority of the Lutheran service-books and implemented.[23][24]
As theBishop of Exeter,Robert Mortimer set up an exorcism commission, which published its report in 1973.[25][26]
In 1974, theChurch of England set up the "deliverance ministry".[27] As part of its creation, everydiocese in the country was equipped with a team trained in both exorcism and psychiatry. According to its representatives, most cases brought before it have conventional explanations, and actual exorcisms are quite rare; blessings, though, are sometimes given to people with psychological conditions.[27]
Anglicanpriests may not perform an exorcism without permission from the Diocesanbishop. An exorcism is not usually performed unless the bishop and his team of specialists (including apsychiatrist andphysician) have approved it.
In theEpiscopal Church, theBook of Occasional Services discusses provision for exorcism, stating that cases are to be referred to the diocesan bishop for consultation. There is no specific rite, nor an office of "exorcist".[28] Diocesan exorcists usually continue in their role when they have retired from all other church duties. TheOrder of Christ the Saviour is aDominican religious order that trains exorcists and deliverance ministers in the Episcopal Church.[29]
Albert Mohler, the ninth president of theSouthern Baptist Theological Seminary, states thatBaptists, among otherevangelical Christians, do
believe in the existence, malevolence, and power of the Devil and demons. About these things, the New Testament is abundantly clear. We must resist any effort to 'demythologize' the New Testament in order to deny the existence of these evil forces and beings. At the same time, we must recognize quickly that the Devil and demons are not accorded the powers often ascribed to them in popular piety. The Devil is indeed a threat, as Peter made clear when he warned: 'Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour.' [1 Peter 5:8] The New Testament is also clear that very real cases of demonic possession were encountered by Jesus and his followers. Jesus liberated afflicted individuals as he commanded the demons to flee, and they obeyed him. Likewise, the Apostle Paul performed exorcisms as he confronted the powers of evil and darkness in his ministry. A closer look at the crucial passages involved reveals no rite of exorcism, however, just the name of Jesus and the proclamation of the Gospel. Likewise, there is no notion of a priestly ministry of ordained exorcists in the New Testament.[30]
As a result of this theology, Baptists argue that the weapons of "warfare are spiritual, and the powers that the forces of darkness most fear are the name of Jesus, the authority of the Bible, and the power of his Gospel."[31]
In Catholicdogma, exorcism is asacramental but not asacrament, unlikebaptism orconfession. Unlike a sacrament, exorcism's "integrity and efficacy do not depend ... on the rigid use of an unchanging formula or on the ordered sequence of prescribed actions. Its efficacy depends on two elements: authorization from valid and licit Church authorities, and the faith of the exorcist."[32]
The Catholic Church revised the Rite of Exorcism in January 1999, though the traditional Rite of Exorcism inLatin is allowed as an option. The act of exorcism is considered to be an incredibly dangerous spiritual task. The ritual assumes that possessed persons retain their free will, though the demon may hold control over their physical body, and involves prayers, blessings, and invocations with the use of the documentOf Exorcisms and Certain Supplications. In the modern era, Catholic bishops rarely authorize exorcisms, approaching would-be cases with the presumption that mental or physical illness is the more probable cause.
Solemn exorcisms, according to theCanon law of the Church, can be exercised only by anordained priest or higher prelate, with the express permission of the local bishop, and only after a careful medical examination of the victim to exclude the possibility of mental illness,[33] and in the ritual people cannot in any circumstance be harmed. TheCatholic Encyclopedia (1908) enjoined: "Superstition ought not to be confounded with religion, however much their history may be interwoven, nor magic, however white it may be, with a legitimate religious rite." Signs listed in theRoman Ritual as being indicators of possible demonic possession include: speaking foreign or ancient languages of which the possessed has no prior knowledge; supernatural abilities and strength; knowledge of hidden or remote things which the possessed has no way of knowing; an aversion to anything holy; and profuseblasphemy and/orsacrilege.
Fr.Gabriele Amorth, who claimed to have performed 160,000 exorcisms, said exorcists have the ability to detect an evil presence. However, he notes that "they are not always right: their 'feelings' must be checked out." In his examples, they are able to detect the events that caused the demon to enter, or are able to discover the evil object that has cursed the individual. He notes that exorcists "are alwayshumble."[34]
Receive the exorcisms with devotion...Divine exorcisms, borrowed from the Scripture, purify the soul.[35]
TheEastern Orthodox Church has a rich and complex tradition of exorcism,[36] tracing the practice back to Christ and his apostles.[37] Orthodox Christians believedemonic activity is the devil's primary means of corrupting humanity and rebelling against God.[38]Disease,blight, and other maladies are widely associated with satanic influence, which can influence or infest even objects.[39] As a result, exorcisms are quite common, even finding their way in rituals involving the blessing offields.[39]
All liturgical books, such as theEuchologion, contain prayers of exorcism, namely bySt. Basil the Great andSt. John Chrysostom.[39][38] The Eastern Orthodox Church lacks a special organization of exorcists akin to the Catholic International Association of Exorcists; rather, all priests are trained and equipped to perform exorcisms.[38] This is due in part to thebaptismal liturgy in Eastern Orthodoxy containing an exorcism ritual.[40][41]
Orthodox theology holds that every Christian performs an exorcism through their struggle against sin and evil:
[T]he whole Church, past, present and future, has the task of an exorcist to banish sin, evil, injustice, spiritual death, the devil from the life of humanity ... Both healing and exorcising are ministered through prayers, which spring from faith in God and from love for man ... All the prayers of healing and exorcism, composed by the Fathers of the Church and in use since the third century, begin with the solemn declaration: In Thy Name, O Lord.[42]
Though officially discouraged by the church, many lay Orthodox Christians believe inVaskania, or the "evil eye", in which malevolent thoughts or intentions (namely jealousy and envy) can cause harm and destruction to their recipients.[36] Although the church rejects the power of the evil eye, which it traces to pagan superstition, it recognizes the phenomenon as being morally and spiritually problematic, such that it is a legitimate target for exorcism.[43]
TheLutheran Church traces the practice of exorcism to the Scriptural claim thatJesus Christ expelled demons with a simple command (Mark 1:23–26; 9:14–29; Luke 11:14–26).[14] Theapostles continued the practice with the power and in the name of Jesus (Matthew 10:1; Acts 19:11–16).[14] Contrary to somedenominations ofChristianity, Lutheranism affirms that the individual, both the believer and the non-believer, can be plagued by demons, based on several arguments, including the one that "just as a believer, whom Jesus Christ has delivered from sin (Romans 6:18), can still be bound by sin in his life, so he can still be bound by a demon in his life."[44]
After theProtestant Reformation,Martin Luther abbreviated the Roman ritual used for exorcism.[23] In 1526, the ritual was further abbreviated and theexsufflation was omitted. This form of theLutheran Ritual for Exorcism was incorporated into the majority of the Lutheran service-books and implemented.[23][24] According to a Pastoral Handbook of theLutheran Church,
In general, satanic possession is nothing other than an action of the devil by which, from God's permission, men are urged to sin, and he occupies their bodies, in order that they might lose eternal salvation. Thus bodily possession is an action by which the devil, from divine permission, possesses both pious and impious men in such a way that he inhabits their bodies not only according to activity, but also according to essence, and torments them, either for the punishment or for the discipline and testing of men, and for the glory of divine justice, mercy, power, and wisdom.[23][45]
These pastoral manuals warn that often, symptoms such asecstasy,epileptic seizures,lethargy, insanity, and a frantic state of mind, are the results of natural causes and should not be mistaken fordemon possession.[45] According to the Lutheran Church, primary symptoms that may indicate demon possession and the need of an exorcism include:
The Church lists the secondary symptoms of horrible shouting (Mark 5:5),blasphemy ofGod and jeering at one's neighbor, deformation of movements (e.g. ferocious movements, facial contortion, immodest laughing, gnashing of teeth, spitting, removing clothes, lacerating self, Mk. 9:20; Lk. 8:27.), inhuman revelry (e.g. when they take food beyond the capability of nature), torment of bodies, unusual injuries of the body and of those nearby, extraordinary motion of bodies (e.g., an elderly man who, being demon-possessed, was able to run as fast as a horse), and forgetfulness of things done.[45] Other symptoms include the corruption of reason in man, which make him like an animal, melancholy, the acceleration of death (Mark 9:18 [suicide attempts]), and the presence of other supernatural occurrences.[45]
After these determinations have been made, the Church recommends experienced physicians to determine whether there is a medical explanation for the behaviour of the individual.[45] When a true possession is recognized, the poor one is to be committed to the care of aminister of the Church who teaches sound doctrine, is of a blameless life, who does nothing for the sake of filthy lucre, but does everything from the soul.[45] The pastor is then to diligently inquire what kind of life the possessed one led up to this point and lead him or her through the law to the recognition of hissins.[45] After this admonition or consolation has taken place, the works of a natural physician are to be used, who will cleanse the possessed one from malicious fluids with the appropriate medicines.[45] The Pastoral Handbook then states:
- Let ardent prayers be poured forth to God, not only by the ministers of the Church, but also by the whole Church. Let these prayers be conditioned, if the liberation should happen for God's glory and the salvation of the possessed person, for this is an evil of the body.
- With the prayers letfasting be joined, see Matthew 17:21.
- Alms by friends of the possessed person.
- Let theconfession of the Christian faith be once required of Him, let him be taught concerning the works of the devil destroyed by Christ, let him be sent back faithfully to this Destroyer of Satan, Jesus Christ, let an exhortation be set up to faith in Christ, to prayers, topenitence.[45]
ManyMennonite colleges and seminaries include training for the ministry of exorcism. The Mennonite minister and exorcist Dean Hochstetler states thatpowwowing, a practice done by some in thePennsylvania Dutch community, "brings people under bondage to Satan."[46] On 30 July to 1 August 1987, the "Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries, Mennonite Board of Missions (MC) and the Indiana-Michigan Mennonite Conference (MC) sponsored a consultation on 'Bondage and Deliverance'."[47]
TheBritish Methodist Church acknowledges three differing views about exorcism: either that it involves "the casting out of an objective power of evil which has gained possession of a person"; "exorcism is a necessary or at least an effective psychologicalmeans of reassuring those who believe themselves to be possessed"; or "since demons do not exist ... exorcism would be inappropriate, since what is to be dealt with is false belief."[48]: 206 According to the first viewpoint, "the authority to exorcise has been given to the Church as one of the ways in which Christ's Ministry is continued in the world."[48]: 206 Aminister must first consult theDistrict Chair in order to perform an exorcism.[48]: 208 The Methodist Church holds that it is of great importance to ensure that the presence and love of Christ is assured to the individual(s) seeking help.[48]: 206 In addition, the ministry of the "Bible, prayer and sacraments" should be extended to these individuals as well.[48]: 208 A combination of these things has been proven to be effective.[49]
For example, in one particular situation, a Roman Catholic woman believed that her house was haunted, and therefore consulted herpriest for assistance. Since he was not available to drive thedemons from the woman's home, she contacted a Methodist minister, who exorcised the evil spirits from a room, which was believed to be the source of distress in the house, and celebratedHoly Communion in the same place;[49] following these actions, there was no longer any problem in the house.[49] In another situation, The Reverend Jay Bartlett writes that a young lady who was involved with "drug abuse, self mutilation, severe abuse, mental torment, Satanism, occult activity, communion with demons, and other evils" was exorcised at Mt. Olive Free Methodist Church inDallas over a period of seven nights, with "anointing oil, the Word of God (the sword of the Spirit),holy water, the sacred symbols of the cross, theblood of Christ, and consecrated materials [being] utilized to drive out the demons."[50]
In theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, priests intervene and perform exorcisms on behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons orbuda. According to a 2010Pew Research Center study, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia claim to have experienced or witnessed an exorcism.[51] Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting.[52] Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons.[52] Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac.[52] Superhuman strength – such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts – along withglossolalia are observed in the afflicted.[52] Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:
It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counselor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.[52]
The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."[52]
In thePentecostal Church, theCharismatic Movement, and other less formalized Christian groups, the exorcism ritual can take many forms and belief structures. The most common of these is thedeliverance ceremony. Deliverance differs from the exorcism ceremony in that the Devil may have gotten a foothold into a person's life rather than gaining complete control. If complete control has been gained, a full-fledged exorcism is necessary. However, a "spirit-filled Christian" cannot be possessed, based on their beliefs. Within this belief structure, the reasons for the devil to get a foothold are usually explained to be some sort of deviation from theological doctrine or because of pre-conversion activities (like dealing with theoccult).[53][54]
The traditional method for determining if a person needs deliverance is done by having someone present who has the gift ofdiscerning of spirits. This is a gift of theHoly Spirit from 1 Corinthians 12 that allows a person to "sense" in some way an evil presence.[55] While the initial diagnosis is usually uncontested by the congregation, when many people are endowed with this gift in a single congregation, results may vary.[56]
Critics of exorcism contend that so-called 'possession' is often, in fact, undiagnosed mental or physical illness and the performance of an exorcism in such cases exacerbates the condition and can even be considered abuse.[57] In one case, a Catholic priest performed unauthorized, fake exorcisms for financial gain.[58] Researchers Nicole M. Bauer and J. Andrew Doole argue that by incorporating "medical-psychiatric expertise in the process of diagnosis", exorcists give legitimacy to demonic possession in modern society and present it as "a valid medical healing practice, superior even to medical solutions".[59]
Exorcism From the Greekexorkizo, "i adjure" (cf. Matt. 26:63),exorcism became a term prominent in early Christianity from the early 2nd century onward (cf. Justin,Dialogue with Trypho 76.6;85.2) as the casting out of devils.
St. Cyril of Jerusalem writes: "Receive the exorcisms with devotion...Divine exorcisms, borrowed from the Scripture, purify the soul."
...Johannes Nider andHeinrich Kramer found nothing wrong with the performance of exorcism by laypeople, as long as they did not usurp the clerical rite, which included some prayers only a priest could pronounce. Every Christian, Nider reminded his readers, had the power to command demons and drive them out in the name of Christ, but lay exorcists should be extremely careful not to use unknown characters and charms, and should be aware that the only mode to adjure demons is the imperative and never the supplicative.
The weapons of our warfare are spiritual, and the powers that the forces of darkness most fear are the name of Jesus, the authority of the Bible, and the power of his Gospel.
St. Cyril of Jerusalem writes: "Receive the exorcisms with devotion...Divine exorcisms, borrowed from the Scripture, purify the soul."
In the Orthodox service books the prayers of exorcism attributed toBasil the Great are still in use, for common as well as particular cases of need. In the Latin church the rite of exorcism is now very rarely used, and then only with episcopal permission. The exorcism prayers continue the ancient association of sickness and blight with demonic activity, and the blessings of beasts and fields in the Orthodox service books to this day make a regular pairing of the ideas.
In the Orthodox Church exorcism is practiced prior to baptism.
In the Orthodox rites of Baptism, this liberating action of Christ is expressed in the denial of Satan by the catechumens and in the exorcisms of the priest.
Mennonites of the Lancaster Conference "seem to think that it's black magic and related to the devil and just don't think it's very good." Dean Hochstetler, an Indiana Mennonite minister and exorcist raised in an Amish community, agreed with this sentiment, saying, "Powwowing does one thing well, brings people under bondage to Satan."
The Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminaries, Mennonite Board of Missions (MC), Oaklawn Psychiatric Center (all in Elkhart, Ind.), and the Indiana-Michigan Mennonite Conference (MC) sponsored a consultation on "Bondage and Deliverance," July 30-Aug. 1, 1987.
In Ethiopia, 74% of Christians say they have experienced or witnessed the devil or evil spirits being driven out of a person
