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Evolutionary linguistics

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Sociobiological approaches to linguistics
Not to be confused withHistorical linguistics.
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Evolutionary biology

Evolutionary linguistics orDarwinian linguistics is asociobiological approach to the study oflanguage.[1][2] Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics as a subfield ofsociobiology andevolutionary psychology. The approach is also closely linked withevolutionary anthropology,cognitive linguistics andbiolinguistics. Studying languages as the products ofnature, it is interested in the biologicalorigin and development of language.[3] Evolutionary linguistics is contrasted withhumanistic approaches, especiallystructural linguistics.[4]

A main challenge in this research is the lack of empirical data: there are noarchaeological traces of early human language.Computational biological modelling andclinical research withartificial languages have been employed to fill in gaps of knowledge. Although biology is understood to shape thebrain, whichprocesses language, there is no clear link between biology and specific human language structures orlinguistic universals.[5]

For lack of a breakthrough in the field, there have been numerous debates about what kind of natural phenomenon language might be. Some researchers focus on theinnate aspects of language. It is suggested that grammar has emerged adaptationally from the human genome, bringing about a languageinstinct;[6] or that it depends on a single mutation[7] which has caused alanguage organ to appear in the human brain.[8] This is hypothesized to result in acrystalline[9] grammatical structure underlying all human languages. Others suggest language is not crystallized, but fluid and ever-changing.[10] Others, yet, liken languages to livingorganisms.[11] Languages are considered analogous to aparasite[12] orpopulations ofmind-viruses. There is so far littlescientific evidence for any of these claims, and some of them have been labelled aspseudoscience.[13][14]

History

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1863–1945: social Darwinism

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Although pre-Darwinian theorists had compared languages to living organisms as ametaphor, the comparison was first taken literally in 1863 by thehistorical linguistAugust Schleicher who was inspired byCharles Darwin'sOn the Origin of Species.[15] At the time there was not enough evidence to prove that Darwin's theory ofnatural selection was correct. Schleicher proposed that linguistics could be used as a testing ground for the study of the evolution ofspecies.[16] A review of Schleicher's bookDarwinism as Tested by the Science of Language appeared in the first issue ofNature journal in 1870.[17] Darwin reiterated Schleicher's proposition in his 1871 bookThe Descent of Man, claiming that languages are comparable to species, and thatlanguage change occurs throughnatural selection as words 'struggle for life'. Darwin believed that languages had evolved from animalmating calls.[18] Darwinists considered the concept of language creation as unscientific.[19]

August Schleicher and his friendErnst Haeckel were keen gardeners and regarded the study of cultures as a type ofbotany, with different species competing for the same living space.[20][16] Similar ideas became later advocated by politicians who wanted to appeal toworking class voters, not least by thenational socialists who subsequently included the concept of struggle for living space in their agenda.[21] Highly influential until the end ofWorld War II,social Darwinism was eventually banished from human sciences, leading to a strict separation of natural and sociocultural studies.[16]

This gave rise to the dominance of structural linguistics in Europe. There had long been a dispute between the Darwinists and the French intellectuals with the topic of language evolution famously having been banned by theParis Linguistic Society as early as in 1866.Ferdinand de Saussure proposedstructuralism to replace evolutionary linguistics in hisCourse in General Linguistics, published posthumously in 1916. The structuralists rose to academic political power in human and social sciences in the aftermath of the student revolts of Spring 1968, establishing theSorbonne as an international centrepoint of humanistic thinking.

From 1959 onwards: genetic determinism

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In theUnited States, structuralism was however fended off by the advocates ofbehavioural psychology; a linguistics framework nicknamed as 'American structuralism'. It was eventually replaced by the approach ofNoam Chomsky who published a modification ofLouis Hjelmslev's formal structuralist theory, claiming thatsyntactic structures areinnate. An active figure in peace demonstrations in the 1950s and 1960s, Chomsky rose to academic political power following Spring 1968 at the MIT.[22]

Chomsky became an influential opponent of the French intellectuals during the following decades, and his supporters successfully confronted thepost-structuralists in theScience Wars of the late 1990s.[23] The shift of the century saw a new academic funding policy where interdisciplinary research became favoured, effectively directing research funds to biological humanities.[24] The decline of structuralism was evident by 2015 with Sorbonne having lost its former spirit.[25]

Chomsky eventually claimed that syntactic structures are caused by a randommutation in the humangenome,[7] proposing a similar explanation for other human faculties such asethics.[22] ButSteven Pinker argued in 1990 that they are the outcome of evolutionaryadaptations.[26]

From 1976 onwards: Neo-Darwinism

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At the same time when the Chomskyan paradigm ofbiological determinism defeatedhumanism, it was losing its own clout within sociobiology. It was reported likewise in 2015 thatgenerative grammar was under fire inapplied linguistics and in the process of being replaced withusage-based linguistics;[27] a derivative ofRichard Dawkins'smemetics.[28] It is a concept of linguistic units asreplicators. Following the publication of memetics in Dawkins's 1976 nonfiction bestsellerThe Selfish Gene, many biologically inclined linguists, frustrated with the lack of evidence for Chomsky'sUniversal Grammar, grouped under different brands including a framework calledCognitive Linguistics (with capitalised initials), and 'functional' (adaptational) linguistics (not to be confused withfunctional linguistics) to confront both Chomsky and the humanists.[4] The replicator approach is today dominant in evolutionary linguistics, applied linguistics, cognitive linguistics andlinguistic typology; while the generative approach has maintained its position in general linguistics, especiallysyntax; and incomputational linguistics.

View of linguistics

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Evolutionary linguistics is part of a wider framework ofUniversal Darwinism. In this view, linguistics is seen as anecological environment for research traditions struggling for the same resources.[4] According toDavid Hull, these traditions correspond to species in biology. Relationships between research traditions can besymbiotic,competitive orparasitic. An adaptation of Hull's theory in linguistics is proposed byWilliam Croft.[3] He argues that the Darwinian method is more advantageous than linguistic models based onphysics,structuralist sociology, orhermeneutics.[4]

Approaches

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Evolutionary linguistics is often divided intofunctionalism andformalism,[29] concepts which are not to be confused withfunctionalism andformalism in the humanistic reference.[30] Functional evolutionary linguistics considers languages asadaptations to human mind. The formalist view regards them as crystallised or non-adaptational.[29]

Functionalism (adaptationism)

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The adaptational view of language is advocated by various frameworks of cognitive and evolutionary linguistics, with the terms 'functionalism' and 'Cognitive Linguistics' often being equated.[31] It is hypothesised that the evolution of the animal brain provides humans with a mechanism of abstract reasoning which is a 'metaphorical' version of image-based reasoning.[32] Language is not considered as a separate area ofcognition, but as coinciding with general cognitive capacities, such asperception,attention,motor skills, and spatial andvisual processing. It is argued to function according to the same principles as these.[33][34]

It is thought that the brain links action schemes to form–meaning pairs which are calledconstructions.[35] Cognitive linguistic approaches to syntax are calledcognitive andconstruction grammar.[33] Also deriving from memetics and other cultural replicator theories,[3] these can study the natural orsocial selection and adaptation of linguistic units. Adaptational models reject a formal systemic view of language and consider language as a population of linguistic units.

The bad reputation of social Darwinism and memetics has been discussed in the literature, and recommendations for new terminology have been given.[36] What correspond to replicators or mind-viruses in memetics are calledlinguemes in Croft'stheory of Utterance Selection (TUS),[37] and likewise linguemes or constructions in construction grammar andusage-based linguistics;[38][39] andmetaphors,[40]frames[41] orschemas[42] in cognitive and construction grammar. The reference of memetics has been largely replaced with that of aComplex Adaptive System.[43] In current linguistics, this term covers a wide range of evolutionary notions while maintaining theNeo-Darwinian concepts of replication and replicator population.[44]

Functional evolutionary linguistics is not to be confused withfunctional humanistic linguistics.

Formalism (structuralism)

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Advocates of formal evolutionary explanation in linguistics argue that linguistic structures are crystallised. Inspired by 19th century advances incrystallography, Schleicher argued that different types of languages are like plants, animals and crystals.[45] The idea of linguistic structures as frozen drops was revived intagmemics,[46] an approach to linguistics with the goal to uncover divine symmetries underlying all languages, as if caused bythe Creation.[47]

In modernbiolinguistics,the X-bar tree is argued to be like natural systems such asferromagnetic droplets and botanic forms.[48] Generative grammar considers syntactic structures similar tosnowflakes.[9] It is hypothesised that such patterns are caused by amutation in humans.[7]

The formal–structural evolutionary aspect of linguistics is not to be confused withstructural linguistics.

Evidence

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There was some hope of a breakthrough with the discovery of theFOXP2gene.[49][50] There is little support, however, for the idea thatFOXP2 is 'the grammar gene' or that it had much to do with the relatively recent emergence of syntactical speech.[51] The idea that people have a language instinct is disputed.[52][53]Memetics is sometimes discredited aspseudoscience[14] and neurological claims made by evolutionary cognitive linguists have been likened to pseudoscience.[13] All in all, there does not appear to be any evidence for the basic tenets of evolutionary linguistics beyond the fact that language is processed by the brain, and brain structures are shaped by genes.[54][55]

Criticism

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Evolutionary linguistics has been criticised by advocates of (humanistic) structural and functional linguistics.Ferdinand de Saussure commented on 19th century evolutionary linguistics:

"Language was considered a specific sphere, a fourth natural kingdom; this led to methods of reasoning which would have caused astonishment in other sciences. Today one cannot read a dozen lines written at that time without being struck by absurdities of reasoning and by the terminology used to justify these absurdities"[56]

Mark Aronoff, however, argues that historical linguistics had its golden age during the time of Schleicher and his supporters, enjoying a place among the hard sciences, and considers the return of Darwinian linguistics as a positive development.Esa Itkonen nonetheless deems the revival of Darwinism as a hopeless enterprise:

"There is ... an application of intelligence in linguistic change which is absent in biological evolution; and this suffices to make the two domains totally disanalogous ... [Grammaticalisation depends on] cognitive processes, ultimately serving the goal of problem solving, which intelligent entities like humans must perform all the time, but which biological entities like genes cannot perform. Trying to eliminate this basic difference leads to confusion."[57]

Itkonen also points out that the principles of natural selection are not applicable because language innovation and acceptance have the same source which is the speech community. In biological evolution, mutation and selection have different sources. This makes it possible for people to change their languages, but not theirgenotype.[58]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Gontier, Nathalie (2012). "Selectionist approaches in evolutionary linguistics: an epistemological analysis".International Studies in the Philosophy of Science.26 (1):67–95.doi:10.1080/02698595.2012.653114.hdl:10451/45246.S2CID 121742473.
  2. ^McMahon, April; McMahon, Robert (2012).Evolutionary Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-89139-4.
  3. ^abcCroft, William (October 2008). "Evolutionary Linguistics".Annual Review of Anthropology.37:219–234.doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085156.
  4. ^abcdCroft, William (1993). "Functional-typological theory in its historical and intellectual context".STUF - Language Typology and Universals.46 (1–4):15–26.doi:10.1524/stuf.1993.46.14.15.S2CID 170296028.
  5. ^Gibson, Kathleen R.; Tallerman, Maggie, eds. (2011).The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-954111-9.
  6. ^Pinker, Steven (1994).The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language(PDF). Penguin Books.ISBN 978-0-14-017529-5. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  7. ^abcBerwick, Robert C.; Chomsky, Noam (2015).Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press.ISBN 978-0-262-03424-1.
  8. ^Anderson, Stephen R.; Lightfoot, David W. (2003).The Language Organ: Linguistics as Cognitive Psychology. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-00783-2.
  9. ^abChomsky, Noam (2015).The Minimalist Program. 20th Anniversary Edition. MIT Press.ISBN 978-0-262-52734-7.
  10. ^Bybee, Joan L.; Beckner, Clay (2015). "Usage-Based theory". In Heine, Bernd; Narrog, Heiko (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. 953–980.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199544004.013.0032.ISBN 978-0-19-954400-4.
  11. ^van Driem, George (2005). "The language organism: the Leiden theory of language evolution". In Minett, James W.; Wang, William S.-Y. (eds.).Language Acquisition, Change and Emergence: Essays in Evolutionary Linguistics. pp. 331–340.
  12. ^Hung, Tzu-wei (2019)."How did language evolve? Some reflections on the language parasite debate".Biological Theory.14 (4):214–223.doi:10.1007/s13752-019-00321-x.S2CID 145846758. Retrieved2020-03-02.
  13. ^abSchwarz-Friesel, Monika (2012). "On the status of external evidence in the theories of cognitive linguistics".Language Sciences.34 (6):656–664.doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2012.04.007.
  14. ^abPolichak, James W. (2002). "Memes as pseudoscience". In Shermer, Michael (ed.).The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, Vol. 1. ABC Clio. pp. 664–667.ISBN 1-57607-653-9.
  15. ^Stamos, David N. (2006).Darwin and the Nature of Species. SUNY Press. p. 55.ISBN 978-0-7914-8088-5. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  16. ^abcAronoff, Mark (2017). "20 Darwinism tested by the science of language". In Bowern; Horn; Zanuttini (eds.).On Looking into Words (and Beyond): Structures, Relations, Analyses. SUNY Press. pp. 443–456.ISBN 978-3-946234-92-0. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  17. ^Müller, Max (1870)."Darwinism tested by the science of language (review)".Nature.1:256–259.doi:10.1038/001256a0.hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-5EFD-E.S2CID 176892155.
  18. ^Darwin, Charles (1981) [1871].The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex(PDF). Princeton University Press. pp. 59–61.ISBN 0-691-08278-2. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  19. ^Schleicher, August (1869) [1863].Darwinism Tested by the Science of Language, English translation. John Camden Hotten.ISBN 0-691-08278-2. Retrieved2020-03-03.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  20. ^Richards, Robert J. (2002). "The linguistic creation of man: Charles Darwin, August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and themissing link in 19th century evolutionary theory". In Doerres, M. (ed.).The Experimenting in Tongues: Studies in Science and Language. Stanford University Press. pp. 21–48.ISBN 1-57607-653-9.
  21. ^Richards, R. J. (2013).Was Hitler a Darwinian?: Disputed Questions in the History of Evolutionary Theory. University of Chicago Press.ISBN 978-0-226-05893-1.
  22. ^abSmith, Neil (2002).Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-47517-1.
  23. ^Bricmont, jean; Franck, Julie (2010). Bricmont, jean; Franck, Julie (eds.).Chomsky Notebook. Columbia University Press.ISBN 978-0-231-14475-9.
  24. ^Rhoten, Diana (July 19, 2016)."Interdisciplinary research: trend or transition?".Language Sciences. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  25. ^Hazareesingh, Sudhir (September 19, 2015)."The decline of the French intellectual".Politico. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  26. ^Pinker, Steven; Bloom, Paul (2011)."Natural language and natural selection"(PDF).Behavioral and Brain Sciences.13 (4):707–727.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.116.4044.doi:10.1017/S0140525X00081061.S2CID 6167614. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2007-07-11. Retrieved2017-10-24.
  27. ^de Bot, Kees (2015).A History of Applied Linguistics: From 1980 to the Present. Routledge.ISBN 978-1-138-82065-4.
  28. ^Boesch, Christoophe; Tomasello, Michael (1998)."Chimpanzee and human cultures (with a comment from James D. Paterson)".Current Anthropology.39 (5):591–614.doi:10.1086/204785.S2CID 55562574. Retrieved2020-03-03.
  29. ^abDarnell; Moravcsik; Noonan; Newmeyer; Wheatley, eds. (1999).Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics, Vol. 1. John Benjamins. pp. 664–667.ISBN 978-90-272-9879-9.
  30. ^Croft, William (2015). "Functional approaches to grammar". In Wright, James (ed.).International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier.ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
  31. ^"About Cognitive Linguistics".cognitivelinguistics.org. ICLA - International Cognitive Linguistics Association. Archived fromthe original on 2019-12-09. Retrieved2020-05-12.
  32. ^Lakoff, George (1990). "Iinvariance hypothesis: is abstract reasoning based on image-schemas?".Cognitive Linguistics.1 (1):39–74.doi:10.1515/cogl.1990.1.1.39.S2CID 144380802.
  33. ^abCroft, William; Cruse, Alan (2004).Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-511-80386-4.
  34. ^Geeraerts, Dirk (2006). "Introduction: a rough guide to Cognitive Linguistics". In Geeraerts, Dirk (ed.).Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings. De Gruyter.ISBN 978-3-11-019990-1.
  35. ^Arbib, Michael A. (2015). "Language evolution – an emergentist perspective". In MacWhinney and O'Grady (ed.).Handbook of Language Emergence. Wiley. pp. 81–109.ISBN 978-1-118-34613-6.
  36. ^Keller, Rudi (1994).On Language Change: the Invisible Hand in Language. CRC Press.ISBN 978-0-415-07672-2.
  37. ^Croft, William (2006). "The relevance of an evolutionary model to historical linguistics". In Nedergaard Thomsen, Ole (ed.).Competing Models of Linguistic Change: Evolution and Beyond. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Vol. 279. John Benjamins. pp. 91–132.doi:10.1075/cilt.279.08cro.ISBN 978-90-272-4794-0.
  38. ^Kirby, Simon (2013). "Transitions: The Evolution of Linguistic Replicators". In Binder; Smith (eds.).The Language Phenomenon(PDF). The Frontiers Collection. Springer. pp. 121–138.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36086-2_6.ISBN 978-3-642-36085-5. Retrieved2020-03-04.
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  41. ^Fillmore, Charles J.; Baker, Collin (2014)."A frames Approach to Semantic Analysis"(PDF). In Heine & Narrog (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic analysis (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 791–816.ISBN 978-0-19-967707-8.
  42. ^Langacker, Roland (1987).Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1: Theoretical prerequisites. Stanford University Press. p. 130.ISBN 978-0-8047-3851-4.
  43. ^Frank, Roslyn M. (2008). "The Language–organism–species analogy: a complex adaptive systems approach to shifting perspectives on "language"". In Frank (ed.).Sociocultural Situatedness, Vol. 2. De Gruyter. pp. 215–262.ISBN 978-3-11-019911-6.
  44. ^Beckner, Blythe, Bybee, Christiansen, Croft, Ellis, Holland, Ke, Larsen-Freeman, Schoenemann (2009)."Language is a Complex Adaptive System: Position Paper"(PDF).Language Learning.59 (1):1–26.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00533.x.S2CID 143150253. Retrieved2020-03-04.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^Arbukle, John (1970)."August Schleicher and the Linguistics/ Philology Dichotomy: A Chapter in the History of Linguistics".Word.26 (1):17–31.doi:10.1080/00437956.1970.11435578.
  46. ^Pike, Kenneth Lee (1960). "Nucleation".Word.44 (7):291–295.doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1960.tb01762.x.
  47. ^Seuren, Pieter (2015). "Prestructuralist and structuralist approaches to syntax". In Kiss and Alexiadou (ed.).Syntax--theory and analysis: An international handbook. De Gruyter. pp. 134–157.ISBN 978-3-11-020276-2.
  48. ^Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo; Vitiello, Giuseppei (2019). "Linguistics and some aspects of its underlying dynamics".Biolinguistics.9:96–115.arXiv:1506.08663.doi:10.5964/bioling.9033.ISSN 1450-3417.S2CID 14775156.
  49. ^Scharff C, Haesler S (December 2005). "An evolutionary perspective on FoxP2: strictly for the birds?".Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.15 (6):694–703.doi:10.1016/j.conb.2005.10.004.PMID 16266802.S2CID 11350165.
  50. ^Scharff C, Petri J (July 2011)."Evo-devo, deep homology and FoxP2: implications for the evolution of speech and language".Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.366 (1574):2124–40.doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0001.PMC 3130369.PMID 21690130.
  51. ^Diller, Karl C.; Cann, Rebecca L. (30 April 2009). "Evidence Against a Genetic-Based Revolution in Language 50,000 Years Ago". In Rudolf Botha; Chris Knight (eds.).The Cradle of Language. Oxford Series in the Evolution of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 135–149.ISBN 978-0-19-954586-5.OCLC 804498749.[...] we present genetic evidence that the mutations in FOXP2, the gene at issue, may actually have occurred some 1.8 million years ago, whenHomo habilis andHomo ergaster were appearing in the fossil record [...]. [...] The link of FOXP2 to vocalization is found also in birds, mice, and echolocating bats [...]. [...] The archeological and anthropological evidence accumulating in the last decade and a half does not support the claim that there was a revolutionary behavioral change in humans 50,000 years ago.
  52. ^Sampson, Geoffrey (2007)."There is no language instinct"(PDF).Ilha do Desterro (52):35–63. Retrieved2024-11-19.All arguments in favour of a biologically-governed language capacity are refuted to show that, according to available evidence, there is no language instinct. [...] On the available evidence, languages seem to be the products of cultural evolution only.
  53. ^Evans, Vyvyan (2 October 2014).The Language Myth: Why Language is Not an Instinct. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1-107-04396-1. Retrieved19 November 2024.
  54. ^Compare:Gibson, Kathleen R.;Tallerman, Maggie (2012). "Introduction to Part II: The biology of language evolution: anatomy, genetics and neurology". InTallerman, Maggie; Gibson, Kathleen R. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution. Oxford Handbooks in Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 134–135.ISBN 978-0-19-954111-9. Retrieved19 November 2024.The result of the combined processes of potentially rapid genetic change and an earlier, somewhat slower, pace of language change is that genes, languages, and the brain have co-evolved, and to some extent may be continuing to do so. On the other hand, genes and brains enable language; on the other, language change selects for further, linguistically-conducive, changes in genes and brains.
  55. ^Compare:Tallerman, Maggie; Gibson, Kathleen R. (2012). "Introduction: The evolution of language". InTallerman, Maggie; Gibson, Kathleen R. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution. Oxford Handbooks in Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 10.ISBN 978-0-19-954111-9. Retrieved19 November 2024.[...] we believe that serious advances have been made in the past few decades in terms of building an evidence-based discipline.
  56. ^de Saussure, Ferdinand (1959) [First published 1916].Course in general linguistics(PDF). New York: Philosophy Library.ISBN 978-0-231-15727-8. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2020-04-14. Retrieved2020-03-04.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  57. ^Itkonen, Esa (1999)."Functionalism yes, biologism no".Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft.18 (2):219–221.doi:10.1515/zfsw.1999.18.2.219.S2CID 146998564.
  58. ^Itkonen, Esa (2011)."On Coseriu's legacy"(PDF).Energeia (III):1–29.doi:10.55245/energeia.2011.001.S2CID 247142924. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2020-01-14. Retrieved2020-01-14.

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