The strong wind phenomena intrinsic to European windstorms, that give rise to "damage footprints" at the surface, can be placed into three categories, namely the "warm jet", the "cold jet" and the "sting jet". These phenomena vary in terms of physical mechanisms, atmospheric structure, spatial extent, duration, severity level, predictability and location relative to cyclone and fronts.[3]
On average, these storms cause economic damage of around €1.9 billion per year and insurance losses of €1.4 billion per year (1990–1998). They cause the highest amount of natural catastrophe insurance loss in Europe.[4]
Conceptual model for a European Windstorm and the associated strong wind "footprints". Storm track, footprint locations and footprint sizes vary by case, and that all footprints are not always present.[3]
The state of theNorth Atlantic Oscillation relates strongly to the frequency, intensity, and tracks of European windstorms.[5] An enhanced number of storms have been noted over the North Atlantic region during positive NAO phases (compared to negative NAO phases) and is due to larger areas of suitable growth conditions. The occurrence of extreme North Atlantic cyclones is aligned with the NAO state during the cyclones' development phase.[6] The strongest storms are embedded within, and form in large scale atmospheric flow.[7] It should be kept in mind that, on the other hand, the cyclones themselves play a major role in steering the NAO phase.[6] Aggregate European windstorm losses show a strong dependence on NAO,[8] with losses increasing/decreasing 10–15% at all return periods.[8]
A connection between wintertimecold air outbreaks in North America and European windstorms has been hypothesized in the last years.[when?][9][10][11][12] Cold spells over Central Canada and Eastern US appear to be associated with more frequent windstorms and flash floods over Iberia, whereas cold spells over Eastern Canada show a connection to windstorms over Northern Europe and the British Isles.[11] The reason behind thoseteleconnections is not fully clear yet, but changes in the behavior of thePolar jet stream are likely to be at least related to this effect.[9][11]
Temporal clustering of windstorm events has also been noted, with eight consecutive storms hitting Europe during the winter of 1989/90.Cyclones Lothar andMartin in 1999 were separated by only 36 hours.Cyclone Kyrill in 2007 followed only four days afterCyclone Per.[13][14] In November 2011,Cyclone Berit moved across Northern Europe, and just a day later another storm, named Yoda, hit the same area.
Up to the second half of the 19th century, European windstorms were usually named either by the year, the date, or the Saint's day of their occurrence.[15] Although standardised naming schemes now exist, a storm may still be named differently in different countries. For instance, the Norwegian weather service also names independently notable storms that affectNorway,[16] which can result in multiple names being used in different countries they affect, such as:
The 1999 storm called "Anatol" in Germany is known as the "December hurricane" or "Adam" in Denmark and as "Carola" in Sweden.
The 2011 storm called "Dagmar" in Norway and Sweden is known as "Patrick" in Germany and "Tapani" in Finland.
The 2013 event known as theSt. Jude storm in the English media is known as Christian in German and French (following the Free University of Berlin's Adopt-a-Vortex program). It was named Simone by theSwedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, and referred to as the October storm in Danish and Dutch. It was later given the name Allan by theDanish Meteorological Institute following the political decision to name strong storms which affect Denmark.
In 2011, a social media campaign resulted in the storm officially called Cyclone Friedhelm being widely referred to asHurricane Bawbag[17][18][19] and Hurricane Fannybaws. Such usage of the term Hurricane is not without precedent, as the1968 Scotland storm was referred to as "Hurricane Low Q".[20]
The UKMet Office and Ireland'sMet Éireann held discussions about developing a common naming system for Atlantic storms.[21][22] In 2015 a pilot project by the two forecasters was launched as "Name our storms" which sought public participation in naming large-scale cyclonic windstorms affecting the UK and/or Ireland over the winter of 2015/16.[23][24] The UK/Ireland storm naming system began its first operational season in 2015/2016, with Storm Abigail.[25][circular reference]
During 1954, Karla Wege, a student at the Free University of Berlin's meteorological institute suggested that names should be assigned to all areas of low and high pressure that influenced the weather of Central Europe.[26] The university subsequently started to name every area of high or low pressure within its weather forecasts, from a list of 260 male and 260 female names submitted by its students.[26][27] The female names were assigned to areas of low pressure while male names were assigned to areas of high pressure.[26][27] The names were subsequently exclusively used by Berlin's media until February 1990, after which the German media started to commonly use the names, however, they were not officially approved by the German Meteorological ServiceDeutscher Wetterdienst.[26][28] The DWD subsequently banned the usage of the names by their offices during July 1991, after complaints had poured in about the naming system.[27] However, the order was leaked to the German press agency,Deutsche Presse-Agentur, who ran it as its lead weather story.[27] Germany's ZDF television channel subsequently ran a phone in poll on 17 July 1991 and claimed that 72% of the 40,000 responses favored keeping the names.[27] This made the DWD pause and think about the naming system and these days the DWD accept the naming system and request that it is maintained.[27][28]
During 1998 a debate started about whether it was discriminatory to name areas of high pressure with male names and the areas of low pressure with female names.[26] The issue was subsequently resolved by alternating male and female names each year.[26] In November 2002 the "Adopt-a-Vortex" scheme began, which allows members of the public or companies to buy naming rights for a letter chosen by the buyer that are then assigned alphabetically to high and low pressure areas in Europe during each year.[29] The naming comes with the slim chance that the system will be notable. The money raised by this is used by the meteorology department to maintain weather observations at the Free University.[30]
Names are listed alphabetically beginning in January.[31]
Satellite picture ofCyclone Ulli on 3 January 2012
Several European languages usecognates of the wordhuracán (ouragan,uragano,orkan,huragan,orkaan,ураган, which may or may not be differentiated from tropical hurricanes in these languages) to indicate particularly strong cyclonic winds occurring in Europe. The term hurricane as applied to these storms is not in reference to the structurally differenttropical cyclone of the same name, but to thehurricane strength of the wind on theBeaufort scale (winds ≥ 118 km/h or ≥ 73 mph).
In English, use of termhurricane to refer to European windstorms is mostly discouraged, as these storms do not display the structure of tropical storms. Likewise the use of the French termouragan is similarly discouraged ashurricane is in English, as it is typically reserved for tropical storms only.[32][33] European windstorms inLatin Europe are generally referred to by derivatives oftempestas (tempest,tempête,tempestado,tempesta), meaning storm, weather, or season, from theLatintempus, meaning time.[34]
Globally storms of this type forming between 30° and 60° latitude are known asextratropical cyclones. The nameEuropean windstorm reflects that these storms in Europe are primarily notable for their strong winds and associated damage, which can span several nations on the continent. The strongest cyclones are calledwindstorms within academia and the insurance industry.[2] The nameEuropean windstorm has not been adopted by the UK Met Office in broadcasts (though it is used in their academic research[35]), the media or by the general public, and appears to have gained currency in academic and insurance circles as a linguistic and terminologically neutral name for the phenomena.
In contrast to some other European languages there is a lack of a widely accepted name for these storms in English. The Met Office and UK media generally refer to these storms assevere gales.[36] The current definition of severe gales (which warrants the issue of a weather warning) are repeated gusts of 70 mph (110 km/h) or more over inland areas.[36] European windstorms are also described in forecasts variously aswinter storms,[37]winter lows,autumnal lows,Atlantic lows andcyclonic systems.[citation needed] They are also sometimes referred to asbullseye isobars anddartboard lows in reference to their appearance on weather charts.[citation needed] ARoyal Society exhibition has used the nameEuropean cyclones,[38] withNorth-Atlantic cyclone andNorth-Atlantic windstorms also being used.[2] Though with the advent of the "Name our Storms" project, they are generally known as storms.
A fictitious synoptic chart of an extratropical cyclone affecting the UK & Ireland. The blue and red arrows betweenisobars indicate the direction of the wind and its relative temperature, while the "L" symbol denotes the center of the "low". Note the occluded cold and warmfrontal boundaries.
Insurance losses from European windstorms are the second greatest source of loss for any natural peril globally. OnlyAtlantic hurricanes in the United States are larger.[39] Windstorm losses exceed those caused by flooding in Europe. For instance one windstorm,Kyrill in 2007, exceeded the losses of the2007 United Kingdom floods.[40] On average, some 200,000 buildings are damaged by high winds in the UK every year.[41]
European windstorms wipe outelectrical generation capacity across large areas, making supplementation from abroad difficult (windturbines shut down to avoid damage and nuclear capacity may shut if cooling water is contaminated or flooding of the power plant occurs).Transmission capabilities can also be severely limited if power lines are brought down by snow, ice or high winds. In the wake ofCyclone Gudrun in 2005 Denmark and Latvia had difficulty importing electricity,[42] and Sweden lost 25% of its total power capacity as theRinghals Nuclear Power Plant andBarsebäck nuclear power plant nuclear plants were shut down.[43]
During theBoxing Day Storm of 1998 the reactors atHunterston B nuclear power station were shut down when power was lost, possibly due toarcing at pylons caused by salt spray from the sea.[44] When the grid connection was restored, the generators that had powered the station during the blackout were shut down and left on "manual start", so when the power failed again the station was powered by batteries for a short time of around 30 minutes, until the diesel generators were started manually.[44] During this period the reactors were left without forced cooling, in a similar fashion to theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, but the event at Hunterston was rated asInternational Nuclear Event Scale 2.[44][45]
A year later in 1999 during theLothar stormFlooding at the Blayais Nuclear Power Plant resulted in a "level 2" event on the International Nuclear Event Scale.[46]Cyclone Lothar and Martin in 1999 left 3.4 million customers in France without electricity, and forcedÉlectricité de France to acquire all the available portable power generators in Europe, with some even being brought in from Canada.[43] These storms brought a fourth of France's high-tension transmission lines down and 300 high-voltage transmission pylons were toppled. It was one of the greatest energy disruptions ever experienced by a modern developed country.[47]
Following theGreat Storm of 1987 theHigh Voltage Cross-Channel Link between the UK and France was interrupted, and the storm caused a domino-effect ofpower outages throughout the Southeast of England.[48] Conversely windstorms can produce too much wind power.Cyclone Xynthia hit Europe in 2010, generating 19000megawatts of electricity from Germany's 21000 wind turbines. The electricity produced was too much for consumers to use, and prices on theEuropean Energy Exchange inLeipzig plummeted, which resulted in the grid operators having to pay over 18 euros per megawatt-hour to offload it, costing around half a million euros in total.[49]
Disruption of the gas supply duringCyclone Dagmar in 2011 leftRoyal Dutch Shell'sOrmen Lange gas processing plant in Norway inoperable after its electricity was cut off by the storm. This left gas supplies in the United Kingdom vulnerable as this facility can supply up to 20 per cent of the United Kingdom's needs via theLangeled pipeline. However, the disruption came at a time of low demand.[50] The same storm also saw theLeningrad Nuclear Power Plant also affected, as algae and mud stirred up by the storm were sucked into the cooling system, resulting in one of the generators being shut down.[51][52] A similar situation was reported in the wake ofStorm Angus in 2016 (though not linked specifically to the storm) when reactor 1 atTorness Nuclear Power Station in Scotland was taken offline after a sea water intake tripped due to excess seaweed around the inlet.[53] Also following Storm Angus the UK'sNational Grid launched an investigation into whether a ship's anchor damaged four of the eight cables of theCross Channel high voltage interconnector, which would leave it only able to operate at half of its capacity until February 2017.[54]
Contemporary picture of the flood that struck theNorth Sea coast of Germany and Denmark in October 1634.
Grote Mandrenke, 1362 – A southwesterly Atlantic gale swept across England, the Netherlands, northern Germany and southern Denmark, killing over 25,000 and changing the Dutch-German-Danish coastline.
Burchardi flood, 1634 – Also known as "second Grote Mandrenke", hitNordfriesland, drowned about 8,000–15,000 people and destroyed the island ofStrand.
Night of the Big Wind, 1839 – The most severe windstorm to hit Ireland in recent centuries, with hurricane-force winds, killed between 250 and 300 people and rendered hundreds of thousands of homes uninhabitable.
Royal Charter Storm, 25–26 October 1859 – The Royal Charter Storm was considered to be the most severe storm to hit the British Isles in the 19th century, with a total death toll estimated at over 800. It takes its name from the shipRoyal Charter, which was driven by the storm onto the east coast of Anglesey, Wales, with the loss of over 450 lives.
The Tay Bridge Disaster, 1879 – Severe gales (estimated to be Force 10–11) swept the east coast of Scotland, infamously resulting in the collapse of the Tay Rail Bridge and the loss of 75 people who were on board the ill-fated train.[55]
1928 Thames flood, 6–7 January 1928 – Snow melt combined with heavy rainfall and a storm surge in the North Sea led to flooding in central London and the loss of 14 lives.
Historically, powerful and standout European windstorms were given names before the official naming convention was established.
North Sea flood of 1953 – Considered to be the worst natural disaster of the 20th century both in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, claiming over 2,500 lives, including 133 lost when the car ferryMVPrincess Victoria sank in theNorth Channel east ofBelfast.
Great Sheffield Gale and theNorth Sea flood of 1962 – Powerful windstorm crossed theUnited Kingdom, killing nine people and devastating the city ofSheffield with powerful winds.[56] The storm then reached the German coast of the North Sea with wind speeds up to 200 km/h. The accompanyingstorm surge combined with the hightide pushed water up theWeser andElbe, breaching dikes and caused extensive flooding, especially inHamburg. 315 people were killed, around 60,000 were left homeless.
Gale of January 1976 2–5 January 1976 – Widespread wind damage was reported across Europe from Ireland to Central Europe.Coastal flooding occurred in the United Kingdom, Belgium and Germany with the highest storm surge of the 20th century recorded on the German North Sea coast.
1979 Fastnet Race – Force 10 to 11 storm forced the retirement or, in several cases, sinking of numerous yachts. Less than a third of the contesting boats finished with 19 killed.
Great Storm of 1987 – This storm affected southeastern England and northern France. In England maximum mean wind speeds of 70 knots (an average over 10 minutes) were recorded. The highest gust of 117 knots (217 km/h) was recorded atPointe du Raz in Brittany. In all, 19 people were killed in England and 4 in France. 15 million trees were uprooted in England.
1990 storm series – Between 25 January and 1 March 1990, eight severe storms crossed Europe including theBurns' Day storm (Daria),Vivian & Wiebke. The total costs resulting from these storms was estimated at almost €13 billion.[57]
Cyclones Lothar andMartin,[58] 1999 – France, Switzerland and Germany were hit by severe storms Lothar (250 km/h (160 mph)), and Martin (198 km/h (123 mph)). 140 people were killed during the storms. Lothar and Martin together left 3.4 million customers in France without electricity.[43] It was one of the greatest energy disruptions ever experienced by a modern developed country.[47] The total costs resulting from both storms was estimated at almost 19.2 billion $US.
Kyrill,[59] 2007 – Storm warnings were given for many countries in western, central and northern Europe with severe storm warnings for some areas. At least 53 people were killed in northern and central Europe, causing travel chaos across the region.
Powerful, standout European windstorms were named officially by their respective groups.
Storm Desmond - 2015 - A catastrophic windstorm which tied with an atmospheric river to produce extreme flooding to parts of the United Kingdom. Red rain warnings were issued for SW Scotland & NW England as well as parts of Ireland. Storm Desmond broke the United Kingdom's 24-hour rainfall record, with 341.4 mm (13.44 in) of rain falling inHonister Pass,Cumbria, on 5 December.[60]
Storm Doris - 2017 - A strong windstorm that brought power cuts costly damage prompting an amber wind warning for parts of north Wales, central and eastern England.
Storm David - 2018 - The storm caused an estimated €1.14 billion – €2.6 billion in damage. Wind gusts up to 203 km/h (126 mph) wreaked havoc in UK, The Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany. The death toll reached 15.
Storm Eunice - 2022 - The storm with wind gusts up to 196 km/h (122 mph) killed 17 people in Europe. The storm impacted the UK, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Denmark, and Poland.
Storm Ciarán - 2023 - A severe windstorm that struck south-westEngland and north-western France in early November 2023. Gusts of 207 km/h (129 mph) was recorded inPointe du Raz,Brittany,France. Many tornadoes were reported during the storm especially in southern England, the Channel Islands and northern France.
Storm Ingunn - 2024 - An extremely powerful windstorm that brought 155 mph to theFaroe Islands and prompted the issuance of a rare red warning for wind for Norway.
Storm Darragh - 2024 - A powerful extratropical cyclone which severely impacted Ireland and the United Kingdom in December 2024, prompted the issuance of a rare red wind warning for the Welsh coast from Anglesey to the Severn Estuary and the Somerset and north Devon coasts.
Storm Éowyn - 2025 - a powerful and record-breaking extratropical cyclone which hit Ireland, the Isle of Man and the United Kingdom. It was the most powerful and severe to hit Ireland since Night of the Big Wind in 1839, with wind records breaking an 80-year-old record for the country. On 23 January 2025, a 'red' emergency alert was sent to mobile devices across Northern Ireland at 17:25 UTC and in parts of Scotland at 17:53 UTC.[61] The alert was broadcast to around 4.5 million devices making it the largest scale use of theUK's emergency alert system since its introduction in April 2023.[62]
Storm Amy - 2025 - a powerful & destructive windstorm, known for the amount of power outages throughout western and northern Europe (559,665+) as well as a wind gust of 139 mph (224 km/h) atFolgefonna, Norway.
Extreme storms named by the Free University of Berlin were not given names by any of the official European storm naming groups.
Xynthia,[63] 2010 – A severe windstorm moved across the Canary Islands to Portugal and western and northern Spain, before moving on to hit south-western France. The highest gust speeds were recorded at Alto de Orduña, measured at 228 km/h (142 mph). 50 people were reported to have died.[64]
^abcdefGutman, Roy. "Germany bans naming storms 'mean Irene' after howls of protest".Ottawa Citizen. p. F10. – via Lexis Nexis(subscription required)
^ab"Geschichte der Namensvergabe" [History of Naming Weather Systems]. The Free University of Berlin's Institute of Meteorology. January 2000.Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved17 August 2014.
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