TheEuropean badger (Meles meles), also known as theEurasian badger, is a species ofbadger in thefamilyMustelidae native toEurope andWest Asia and parts ofCentral Asia. It is classified asleast concern on theIUCN Red List due to its wide range and large, stable population size which is thought to be increasing in some regions. Several subspecies are recognised, with thenominate subspecies (M. m. meles) predominating in most of Europe.[1] In Europe, where no other badger species commonly occurs, it is simply known as the "badger".
The European badger is a powerfully built animal with a small head, stocky body, small black eyes and short tail, and a coat of black, white, brown, and grey fur. Its weight varies, ranging from 7–13 kg (15–29 lb) in spring to 15–17 kg (33–37 lb) in autumn before thewinter sleep period. It isnocturnal andsocial, living in burrows and sleeping during the day in one of severalsetts within its territory. These burrows have multiple chambers and entrances and comprise extensive systems of underground passages measuring 35–81 m (115–266 ft) in length. Several badger families use these setts for decades. Badgers are particular about the cleanliness of their burrows, carrying in fresh bedding and removing soiled material. They defecate inlatrines situated strategically outside their setts or en route to others.[2]
Although the European badger istaxonomically classified as acarnivoran, it is actually anomnivore that feeds on a variety of plant and animal foods, includingearthworms, largeinsects, smallmammals,carrion,cereals, andtubers. Litters of up to five cubs are born in spring. The young are weaned after a few months, but they usually remain within the family group. European badgers has been known to share their burrows with other species, such asrabbits,red foxes, andraccoon dogs. However, they can be ferocious when provoked, a trait that was exploited in the now illegalblood sport ofbadger-baiting. Like many wild and domesticated mammals, badgers can carrybovine tuberculosis, which can spread between species and be particularly detrimental to cattle. In England, badger populations are culled in an attempt to reduce the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle,[3] although the efficacy of this practice is strongly disputed,[4] and badger culls are widely considered cruel and inhumane.[5][6]
Thesource of the word "badger" is uncertain. TheOxford English Dictionary states that it probably derives from "badge" +-ard, in reference to the white mark on its forehead that resembles a badge. This etymology may date to the early 16th century.[7] TheFrench wordbêcheur ('digger') has also been suggested as a source.[8] A male badger is a boar, a female is a sow, and a young badger is a cub. A badger's home is called a sett.[9] Badger colonies are often called clans.
Until the mid-18th century, the European badger was known by various names in English, including brock, pate, grey, and bawson. The name "bawson" is derived from "bawsened", meaning striped with white. "Pate" is a local name that was once popular in northern England. The name "badget" was once common, but only used inNorfolk, while "earth dog" was used in southern Ireland.[12] The badger is commonly referred to in Welsh as amochyn daear ('earth pig').[13]
The species probably evolved from the ChineseMeles thorali of the earlyPleistocene. The modern species originated in the earlyMiddle Pleistocene, as evidenced by fossil sites inEpiscopia,Grombasek,Süssenborn,Hundsheim,Erpfingen,Koněprusy,Mosbach 2, andStránská Skála. Comparisons between fossil and living specimens demonstrate a progressive adaptation to omnivory, particularly evident in the increased surface area of themolars and the modification of thecarnassials. Badger bones are occasionally discovered in earlierstrata due to the burrowing habits of the species.[15][16]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, several badgertype specimens were described and proposed assubspecies. As of 2005[update], eight subspecies were recognized asvalidtaxa, but four (canescens,arcalus,rhodius,severzovi) are now considered to belong to a distinct species, theCaucasian badger (M. canescens).[17][18]
A large subspecies with a strongly developed sagittal crest, it has a soft pelage and relatively dense underfur. The back has a relatively pure silvery-grey tone, while the main tone of the head is pure white. The dark stripes are wide and black, while the white fields fully extend along the upper and lateral parts of the neck. It can weigh up to 20–24 kg in autumn, with some specimens attaining even larger sizes.[19]
A large subspecies, it exhibits several traits of the Asian badger, namely its very pale, dull, dirty-greyish-ocherous colour and narrow head stripes.[21]
Steppe region of northeastern Ciscaucasia, the Kalmytsk steppes and the Volga delta
European badgers are powerfully built animals with small heads, thick, short necks, stocky, wedge-shaped bodies and short tails. Their feet are eitherplantigrade[23] or semi-digitigrade[24] and short, with five toes on each foot.[25] The limbs are short and massive, with bare lower surfaces on the feet. The claws are strong and elongated with an obtuse end to facilitate digging.[26] The claws are not retractable, and the hind claws wear with age. Old badgers sometimes have their hind claws almost completely worn away from constant use.[27] Their snouts, which are used for digging and probing, are muscular and flexible. Their eyes are small, and their ears are short and tipped with white.Whiskers are present on the snout and above the eyes.
Boars typically have broader heads, thicker necks and narrower tails than sows. Sows have sleeker bodies, narrower, less domed heads and fluffier tails. Badgers have longer guts thanred foxes, reflecting their omnivorous diet. Thesmall intestine has an average length of 5.36 m (17.6 ft) and lacks acecum. Both sexes have three pairs ofnipples, though these are more developed in females.[25] European badgers cannot flex their backs likemartens,polecats andwolverines, nor can they stand fully erect likehoney badgers. However, they can move quickly at full gallop.[26]
Adults measure 25–30 cm (9.8–11.8 in) at the shoulder,[28] 60–90 cm (24–35 in) in body length, 12–24 cm (4.7–9.4 in) in tail length, 7.5–13 cm (3.0–5.1 in) in hind foot length and 3.5–7 cm (1.4–2.8 in) in ear height. Males (or boars) exceed females (or sows) slightly in these measurements, but can weigh considerably more. Their weight varies seasonally, growing from spring to autumn and peaking just before winter. During the summer, European badgers commonly weigh 7–13 kg (15–29 lb) and 15–17 kg (33–37 lb) in autumn.[29]
The average weight of adults in theBiałowieża Forest was 10.2 kg (22 lb) in spring but up to 19 kg (42 lb) in autumn, 46% higher than the spring low mass.[30] InWoodchester Park,England, adults in spring weighed on average 7.9 kg (17 lb) and in fall average 9.5 kg (21 lb).[31] InDoñana National Park, average weight of adult badgers is reported as 6 to 7.95 kg (13.2 to 17.5 lb), perhaps in accordance withBergmann's rule, that its size decreases in relatively warmer climates.[32][33] Sows can attain a top autumn weight of around 17.2 kg (38 lb), while exceptionally large boars have been reported in autumn.
The heaviest verified specimen was 27.2 kg (60 lb), though unverified reports have suggested weights of up to 30.8 kg (68 lb) and even 34 kg (75 lb) (if so, the heaviest weight for any terrestrial mustelid). If average weights are used, the European badger ranks as the second largest terrestrial mustelid, behind only the wolverine.[29] Although they have an acute sense ofsmell, theireyesight ismonochromatic, as has been demonstrasted by their lack of reaction to red lanterns. Only moving objects attract their attention. Theirhearing is no better than that of humans.[34]
Badger skin – the contrasting markings of the fur serve to warn off attackers rather than camouflage, as they are conspicuous at night.[35]
The skulls of European badgers are quite massive and heavy, with an elongated shape. Theirbraincases are oval in shape, while the front part of their skulls is elongated and narrow.[36] Adults have prominentsagittal crests which can reach 15 mm in height in older males,[37] and these are more strongly developed than those of honey badgers.[38] Aside from anchoring the jaw muscles, the thickness of the crests protect their skulls from physical impact.[39] Similar to martens,[40] the dentition of European badgers is well-suited for their omnivorous diets. Theirincisors are small andchisel-shaped, theircanine teeth are prominent and theircarnassials are not overly specialised. Theirmolars are flattened and adapted for grinding.[37] Their jaws are powerful enough to crush most bones, and a provoked badger was once bit down so heavily on a man's wrist that his hand had to be amputated.[41] Thedental formula is3.1.3.13.1.4.2.
Scent glands are present below the base of the tail and around theanus. The subcaudal gland produces a cream-coloured, musky-smelling fatty substance, while the anal glands secrete a stronger-smelling, yellowish-brown fluid.[37]
In winter, the fur on the back and flanks is long and coarse, consisting of bristly guard hairs with a sparse, soft undercoat. The belly fur consists of short, sparse hairs, with skin being visible in theinguinal region. Guard hair length on the middle of the back is 75–80 mm (3.0–3.1 in) in winter. Prior to the winter, the throat, lower neck, chest and legs are black. The belly is of a lighter, brownish tint, while the inguinal region is brownish-grey. The general colour of the back and sides is light silvery-grey, with straw-coloured highlights on the sides. The tail has long and coarse hairs, and is generally the same colour as the back. Two black bands pass along the head, starting from the upper lip and passing upwards to the whole base of the ears. The bands sometimes extend along the neck and merge with the colour of the upper body. The front parts of the bands are 15 mm (0.59 in), and widen to 45–55 mm (1.8–2.2 in) in the ear region. A wide, white band extends from the nose tip through the forehead and crown. White markings occur on the lower part of the head, and extend backwards to a great part of the neck's length.
The summer fur is much coarser, shorter and sparser. It is also deeper in colour, with black tones becoming brownish and sometimes yellowish.[26]
Partialmelanism is known to occur in badgers, andalbinos andleucistic individuals are not uncommon. Albino badgers are either pure white or yellowish with pink eyes, while leucistic badgers are similar but have normal eyes.Erythristic badgers are more common than albinos, and are characterised by a sandy-red colour on the parts of the body that are usually black. Yellow badgers are also known.[42]
The European badger is native to most of Europe. It is found in Albania, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Crete, Croatia, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine.[1]
The distributional boundary between the ranges of European andAsian badgers is theVolga River; the European species inhabits the western bank.[43] The boundary between the ranges of the European andCaucasian badgers is in theNorth Caucasus. However, a clear boundary has not been defined, and the two species aresympatric in some regions, potentially forming ahybrid zone.[44] They are common inEuropean Russia, where 30,000 individuals were recorded in 1990. They are abundant and increasing throughout their range, partly due to a reduction inrabies in Central Europe. In the UK, the badger population increased by 77% during the 1980s and 1990s.[1] The badger population in Great Britain in 2012 is estimated to be 300,000.[43]
The European badger inhabits deciduous and mixed woodlands, clearings, spinneys, pastureland and scrub, including Mediterraneanmaquis shrubland. It has adapted to living in suburban areas and urban parks, though not to the same extent as red foxes. In mountainous regions, it can be found at altitudes of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[1][45]
A badger's clawsScratching-tree of badgersTwo European badgers grooming each other
European badgers are the most sociable of all badger species,[46] forming groups of six adults on average, though larger groups of up to 23 individuals have been recorded. Group size may be related to habitat composition. Under optimal conditions, badgerterritories can be as small as 30 ha (74 acres), but may be as large as 150 ha (370 acres) in marginal areas.[47] Badger territories can be identified by the presence of communallatrines and well-worn paths.[48] It is mainly males that are involved in territorial aggression. A hierarchical social system is thought to exist among badgers and large powerful boars seem to assert dominance over smaller males. Large boars sometimes intrude into neighbouring territories during the main mating season in early spring.
Sparring and more vicious fights generally result from territorial defence during the breeding season.[49] However, animals within and outside a group generally show considerable tolerance towards each other. Boars tend to mark their territories more actively than sows, with their territorial activity increasing during the mating season in early spring.[47] Badgersgroom each other thoroughly using their claws and teeth. This grooming may have a social function.[50] They arecrepuscular andnocturnal by nature.[50] Aggression among badgers is largely associated with territorial defence and mating. When fighting, they bite each other on the neck and rump while running and chasing each other, and the resulting injuries can sometimes be fatal. When attacked by dogs or when sexually excited, badgers may raise their tails and fluff up their fur.[51]
Grunting and snuffling sounds
European badgers have an extensive vocal repertoire. When threatened, they emit deep growls and, when fighting, make low kekkering noises. They bark when surprised, whicker when playing or in distress,[51] and emit a piercing scream when alarmed or frightened.[45]
Entrance to a badger settA sett shown in an engraving
Like other badger species, European badgers are burrowing animals. However, the dens they construct, known as 'setts', are the most complex and are passed on from generation to generation.[52] The number of exits in one sett can range from a few to fifty. These setts can be vast and can sometimes accommodate multiple families. Insuch cases, each family occupies its own passages and nesting chambers. Some setts may have exits which are only used in times of danger or play. A typical passage has a 22–63 cm (8.7–24.8 in) wide base and a 14–32 cm (5.5–12.6 in) height. Three sleeping chambers occur in a family unit, some of which are open at both ends. The nesting chamber is located 5–10 m (16–33 ft) from the opening, and is situated more than a 1 m (3 ft 3 in) underground, in some cases 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in). Generally, the passages are 35–81 m (115–266 ft) long. The nesting chamber is on average 74 cm × 76 cm (29 in × 30 in), and are 38 cm (15 in) high.[53]
Badgers collect and dig bedding throughout the year, particularly in spring and autumn. Sett maintenance is usually carried out by subordinate sows and dominant boars. The chambers are frequently lined with bedding, brought in on dry nights. This bedding consists ofgrass,bracken,straw,leaves andmoss. Up to 30 bundles can be carried to the sett in a single night. European badgers are fastidiously clean animals that regularly clear out and discard old bedding. During the winter, they may take their bedding outside on sunny mornings and retrieve it later in the day.[47]Spring cleaning is associated with the birth of cubs and may occur several times during the summer in order to prevent accumulation of parasites.[53]
If a badger dies within the sett, itsconspecifics will seal off the chamber and dig a new one. Some badgers drag their dead out of the sett and bury them outside.[54] A sett is almost invariably located near a tree, which the badgers use for stretching or claw scraping.[55] Badgers defecate inlatrines located near the sett, as well as at strategic locations on territorial boundaries or near places with abundant food supplies.[50]
In extreme cases, when suitable burrowing grounds are lacking, badgers may move into haystacks in winter.[53] They may share their setts withred foxes orEuropean rabbits. In turn, the badgers may protect the rabbits from other predators. The rabbits usually avoid predation by the badgers by inhabiting smaller, harder-to-reach chambers.[56]
Theestrus cycle in European badgers lasts four to six days and can occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in spring.Sexual maturity in boars is usually attained at the age of twelve to fifteen months but this can range from nine months to two years. Males are normallyfecund during January–May, withspermatogenesis declining in summer. Sows usually beginovulating in their second year, though some exceptionally begin at nine months. They can mate at any time of the year, though the main peak occurs in February–May, when mature sows are in postpartal estrus and young animals experience their first estrus. Matings occurring outside this period typically occur in sows which either failed to mate earlier in the year or matured slowly.[57] Badgers are usuallymonogamous; boars typically mate with one female for life, whereas sows have been known to mate with more than one male.[58] Mating lasts for fifteen to sixty minutes, though the pair may briefly copulate for a minute or two when the sow is not in estrus.A delay of two to nine months precedes the fertilized eggs implanting into the wall of theuterus, though matings in December can result in immediate implantation. Ordinarily, implantation happens in December, with agestation period lasting seven weeks. Cubs are usually born in mid-January to mid-March within underground chambers containing bedding. In areas where the countryside iswaterlogged, cubs may be born above ground in buildings. Typically, only dominant sows can breed, as they suppress the reproduction of subordinate females.[57]
The average litter consists of one to five cubs.[57] Although many cubs are sired by resident males, up to 54% can be fathered by boars from different colonies.[47] Dominant sows may kill the cubs of subordinates.[51] Cubs are born pink, with greyish, silvery fur and fused eyelids. Neonatal badgers are 12 cm (4.7 in) in body length on average and weigh 75 to 132 g (2.6 to 4.7 oz), with cubs from large litters being smaller.[57] By three to five days, their claws become pigmented, and individual dark hairs begin to appear.[58] Their eyes open at four to five weeks and theirmilk teeth erupt about the same time. They emerge from their setts at eight weeks of age, and begin to beweaned at twelve weeks, though they may still suckle until they are four to five months old. Subordinate females assist the mother in guarding, feeding and grooming the cubs.[57] Cubs fully develop their adult coats at six to nine weeks.[58] In areas with medium to high badger populations, dispersal from the natal group is uncommon, though badgers may temporarily visit other colonies.[50] Badgers can live for up to about fifteen years in the wild.[45]
Badgers begin to prepare forwinter sleep during late summer by accumulating fat reserves, which reach a peak in October. During this period, the sett is cleaned and the nesting chamber is filled with bedding. Upon retiring to sleep, badgers block their sett entrances with dry leaves and earth. They typically stop leaving their setts once snow has fallen. In Russia and the Nordic countries, European badgers retire for winter sleep from late October to mid-November and emerge from their setts in March and early April.[59] In areas such as England and Transcaucasia, where winters are less harsh, badgers either forgo winter sleep entirely or spend long periods underground, emerging in mild spells.[45]
Occasionally, badgers feed on medium to largebirds,amphibians,fish, smallreptiles includingtortoises andlizards,snails,slugs, fungi, tubers and green food such asclover andgrass, particularly in winter and duringdroughts.[63][61] Badgers typically capture large quantities of a single food type in each hunt. They generally do not consume more than 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) of food per day, although young badgers under one year of age eat more than adults. An adult badger weighing 15 kg (33 lb) eats a quantity of food equal to 3.4% of its body weight.[60] Badgers typically eat prey on the spot, and rarely transport it to their setts.Surplus killing has been observed in chicken coops.[50]
A badger in England scavenging food
Badgers prey on rabbits all year round, particularly when their young are available. They locate the young rabbits in their nests using their sense of smell, then dig downwards to reach them. In mountainous or hilly areas where plant food is scarce, badgers rely on young rabbits as their main food source. Adult rabbits are usually avoided, unless they are wounded or caught in traps.[64] They consume them by turning them inside out and eating the meat, leaving the inverted skin uneaten.[65] Hedgehogs are eaten in a similar manner.[64] In areas where badgers are common, hedgehogs are scarce.[46]
Some rogue badgers may kill lambs,[64] though this is very rare. They may be wrongly implicated in lamb killings when discarded wool and bones are found near their setts. However, foxes, which sometimes live alongside badgers, are often the real culprits, as badgers do not transport food to their setts. They typically kill lambs by biting them behind the shoulder.[64]Poultry andgame birds are also taken only rarely. Some badgers may build their setts in proximity to poultry or game farms without ever causing damage. In the rare instances in which badgers kill reared birds, this usually occurs in February–March when food is scarce due to harsh weather and increased badger populations. Badgers can easily breachbee hives with their jaws and are mostly indifferent tobee stings, even when set upon by swarms.[64]
Ared fox challenging two badgers moving towards a bird feeder at night
European badgers have few natural enemies. Although they are normally docile, badgers can become extremely aggressive and ferocious when cornered, which makes them dangerous for predators to target.Grey wolves (Canis lupus),Eurasian lynxes (Lynx lynx) andbrown bears (Ursus arctos), Europe's three largest remaining land predators, and largedomestic dogs (C. familiaris) can pose a threat to adult badgers. However, deaths caused by them are rare as these predators are often limited in population due to human persecution and usually prefer larger, easier prey such asungulates. Badgers, on the other hand, may fight viciously if they are aware of a predator and are cornered without an escape route.[66][67][68][69] They may live alongsidered foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in isolated sections of large burrows.[54] The two species possibly tolerate each other out ofcommensalism; foxes provide badgers with food scraps, while badgers maintain the shared burrow's cleanliness.[70] However, cases are known of badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them.[54] In turn, red foxes are known to have killed badger cubs in spring.[71]Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) are known predators of European badgers and attacks by them on badger cubs are not infrequent, including cases where they have been pulled out directly from below the legs of their mothers, and even adult badgers may be attacked by this eagle species when emerging weak and hungry from hibernation.[72][73]Eurasian eagle owls (Bubo bubo) may also take an occasional cub and other large raptors such aswhite-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) andgreater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga) are considered potential badger cub predators.[66][69][74]Raccoon dogs may extensively use badger setts for shelter. There are many known cases of badgers and raccoon dogs wintering in the same hole, possibly because badgers enter hibernation two weeks earlier than the latter, and leave two weeks later. In exceptional cases, badger and raccoon dog cubs may coexist in the same burrow. Badgers may drive out or kill raccoon dogs if they overstay their welcome.[75]
Bovine tuberculosis (bovine TB) caused byMycobacterium bovis is a significant factor in badger mortality, although infected badgers can survive and breed successfully for years before succumbing to the disease. The disease was first observed in badgers in Switzerland in 1951 in Switzerland where they were believed to have contracted it fromchamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) orroe deer (Capreolus capreolus).[76] It was detected in the United Kingdom in 1971 where it was linked to an outbreak of bovine TB in cows. Evidence suggests that badgers are the primary reservoir of infection for cattle in the southwest of England, Wales and Ireland. Since then there has been considerable controversy as to whether culling badgers will effectively reduce or eliminate bovine TB in cattle.[77]
Internal parasites of badgers includetrematodes,nematodes and several species oftapeworm.[78]Ectoparasites carried by them include thefleasParaceras melis (the badger flea),Chaetopsylla trichosa andPulex irritans (the human flea), theliceTrichodectes melis and theticksIxodes ricinus,I. canisuga,I. hexagonus,I. reduvius andI. melicula. They also suffer from mange[78] and spend much time grooming, with individuals concentrating on their own ventral areas and alternating between sides, while social grooming involves one badger grooming another on its dorsal surface. Fleas try to avoid scratching by retreating rapidly downwards and backwards through the fur. This was in contrast to fleas away from their host, which ran upwards and jumped when disturbed. Grooming seems to disadvantage fleas rather than merely having a social function.[79]
TheInternational Union for Conservation of Nature rates the European badger as being ofleast concern. This is because it is a relatively common species with a wide distribution, and its populations are generally stable. In Central Europe, badgers have become more abundant in recent decades due to a reduction in the incidence of rabies. In other areas it has also fared well, with increases in numbers in Western Europe including Great Britain. However, in some areas of intensive agriculture, it has declined due to loss of habitat, and in others it is hunted as a pest.[1]
Badgers play a part in European folklore and are featured in modern literature. InIrish mythology, badgers are portrayed asshape-shifters and kinsmen to Tadg, the king ofTara and foster father ofCormac mac Airt. In one story, Tadg berates his adopted son for having killed and prepared some badgers for dinner.[80] InGerman folklore, the badger is portrayed as a cautious, peace-lovingPhilistine, who loves more than anything his home, family and comfort, though he can become aggressive if surprised. He is a cousin ofReynard the Fox, whom he uselessly tries to convince to return to the path of righteousness.[12]
InKenneth Grahame'sThe Wind in the Willows, Mr. Badger is depicted as a gruff, solitary figure who "simply hates society", yet he is a good friend to Mole and Ratty. As a friend of Toad's late father, he is often firm and serious with Toad, yet generally patient and well-meaning towards him. He can be seen as a wise hermit and a good leader, embodying common sense and gentlemanly behaviour. He is also brave and a skilled fighter, and helps rid Toad Hall of invaders from the wild wood.[81]
InT. H. White's Arthurian seriesThe Once and Future King, the youngKing Arthur is transformed into a badger byMerlin as part of his education. He meets with an elderly badger who tells him "I can only teach you two things – to dig, and love your home."[82]
A villainous badger named Tommy Brock appears inBeatrix Potter's 1912 bookThe Tale of Mr. Tod. He kidnaps the children of Benjamin Bunny and his wife Flopsy, and hides them in an oven at the home of Mr. Tod the fox, whom he fights at the end of the book. The portrayal of the badger as a filthy animal which appropriates fox dens was criticised from a naturalistic viewpoint. However, the inconsistencies are few and are used to create individual characters rather than to depict archetypical foxes and badgers.[83] A wise old badger namedTrufflehunter appears inC. S. Lewis'Prince Caspian, where he aidsCaspian X in his struggle againstKing Miraz.[84]
A badger takes a prominent role inColin Dann'sThe Animals of Farthing Wood series as second in command to Fox.[85] The badger is also the house symbol for Hufflepuff in theHarry Potter book series.[86] TheRedwall series also features the Badger Lords, who rule the extinct volcano fortress of Salamandastron and are renowned as fierce warriors.[87] The children's television seriesBodger & Badger was popular onCBBC during the 1990s and was set around the mishaps of amashed potato-loving badger and his human companion.[88]
An unnamed badger is part of the cast ofBosnian Serb writerPetar Kočić's satirical playBadger on Tribunal that includes a local farmer named David Štrbac who attempts to sue the badger for eating his crops. The play is highly critical towards Austro-Hungarian rule inBosnia and Herzegovina at the beginning of the 20th century. In honour of Kočić and his badger, the satirical theatre inBanja Luka is named Jazavac (Badger).
European badger appears on thecoat of arms of the municipality ofLuhanka inCentral Finland, referring to the former importance of thefur trade in the locality.[89] The badger is also the title animal of theNurmijärvi municipality inUusimaa, Finland, where it is a very common mammal.[90]
Illustration of a badger brought to bay by a Dachshund (Dachshund is German for "badger-dog")
European badgers are of little significance to the hunting economy, although they may be hunted locally. Methods used to hunt badgers include setting jaw traps, ambushing them at their setts with guns, smoking them out of their burrows, and using specially bred dogs such asFox Terriers andDachshunds to dig them out.[91] However, badgers are notoriously durable animals. Their thick, loose skin is covered in long hair for protection, and their heavily ossified skulls allow them to shrug off mostblunt traumas andshotgun pellets.[92]
Badger-baiting was once a popularblood sport,[93] in which badgers were captured alive, placed in boxes, and attacked with dogs.[94] In the UK, this was outlawed by theCruelty to Animals Act 1835[94] and again by theProtection of Animals Act 1911.[95] Moreover, the cruelty towards badgers and the killing of badgers constitute offences under theProtection of Badgers Act 1992 (c. 51).[96] Further offences under this Act are inevitably committed to facilitate badger-baiting, such as interfering with a sett or taking or possessing a badger for purposes other than nursing an injured animal back to health. If convicted, badger baiting offenders may face a prison sentence of up to six months, a fine of up to £5,000, and other punitive measures, such ascommunity service or a ban on owning dogs.[97]
Many badgers inEurope were gassed during the 1960s and 1970s to controlrabies.[98] Until the 1980s,badger culling in the United Kingdom was carried out by gassing to control the spread ofbovine tuberculosis (bTB). Limited culling resumed in 1998 as part of a 10-year randomized trial cull which was considered byJohn Krebs and others to show that culling was ineffective. Some groups called for a selective cull,[99] while others favoured a programme of vaccination. Some vets support the cull on compassionate grounds, as they say that the illness causes badgers much suffering.[99] In 2012, the government authorized a limited cull[100] led by theDepartment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), however, this was later deferred with a wide range of reasons given.[101] In August 2013, a full culling programme began, during which around 5,000 badgers were killed over a period of six weeks in WestSomerset andGloucestershire. Marksmen used high-velocity rifles for the cull, employing a combination of controlled shooting and free shooting techniques (some badgers were first trapped in cages). The cull sparked widespread protests, with people citing emotional, economic and scientific reasons against it. Although the badger is not an endangered species, it is considered an iconic symbol of the British countryside. It was claimed by shadow ministers that "The government's own figures show it will cost more than it saves...", and Lord Krebs, who led the Randomised Badger Culling Trial in the 1990s, said the two pilots "will not yield any useful information".[102] A scientific study of culling from 2013 to 2017 has shown a reduction of 36–55% incidence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle.[3]
A tame orphan badger with keeperA hand reared European badger shown at the celebration of theNational Day of Sweden
There are several accounts of European badgers being tamed. Tame badgers can make affectionate pets, and can be trained to come to their owners when their names are called. They are easy to feed as they are not fussy eaters, and will instinctively unearth rats, moles and young rabbits without training. However, they also have a fondness for pork. While there is one record of a tame badger befriending a fox, badgers do not generally tolerate the presence of cats and dogs and will chase them.[103][dubious –discuss]
Badger meat is eaten in some districts of the former Soviet Union, though in most cases it is discarded.[91]Smoked hams made from badgers were once highly esteemed in England, Wales and Ireland.[104]
Some badger products have been used for medical purposes; badger expert Ernest Neal, quoting from an 1810 edition ofThe Sporting Magazine, wrote;
The flesh, blood and grease of the badger are very useful for oils, ointments, salves and powders, for shortness of breath, the cough of the lungs, for the stone, sprained sinews, collachs etc. The skin being well dressed is very warm and comfortable for ancient people who are troubled with paralytic disorders.[104]
The hair of the European badger has been used for centuries for makingsporrans[104] andshaving brushes.[93][105] Sporrans are traditionally worn as part of male Scottishhighland dress. They form a bag or pocket made from apelt and a badger or other animal's mask may be used as a flap.[106] The pelt was also formerly used forpistol furniture.[93]
^"Badger".Geiriadur: Welsh-English / English-Welsh On-line Dictionary. University of Wales: Trinity Saint David. Retrieved2013-10-05.
^Linnaeus, C. (1758)."Ursus meles".Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. Tomus I (decima, reformata ed.). Holmiae: Laurentius Salvius. p. 48.(in Latin)
^Graells, M. de la P. (1897)."Meles Taxus. (Schreb.)".Fauna Mastodológica Ibérica. Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales de Madrid. Vol. 17. Madrid. pp. 170–173.
^Raichev, E. (2010). "Adaptability to locomotion in snow conditions of fox, jackal, wild cat, badger in the region of Sredna Gora, Bulgaria".Trakia Journal of Sciences.8 (2):499–505.
^Polly, P. D. & MacLeod, N. (2008). "Locomotion in fossil Carnivora: an application of eigensurface analysis for morphometric comparison of 3D surfaces".Palaeontologia Electronica.11 (2):10–13.
^Delahay, R. J.; Carter, S. P.; Forrester, G. J.; Mitchell, A.; Cheeseman, C. L. (2006). "Habitat correlates of group size, bodyweight and reproductive performance in a high-density Eurasian badger (Meles meles) population".Journal of Zoology.270 (3):437–447.doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00165.x.
^Abramov, A. V.; Puzachenko, A. Yu. (2013). "The taxonomic status of badgers (Mammalia, Mustelidae) from Southwest Asia based on cranial morphometrics, with the redescription ofMeles canescens".Zootaxa.3681 (1):44–58.doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3681.1.2.PMID25232583.
^Schmid, T. K.; Roper, T. J.; Christian, S. E.; Ostler, J.; Conradt, L. & Butler, J. (1993). "Territorial marking with faeces in badgers (Meles meles): a comparison of boundary and hinterland latrine use".Behaviour.127 (3–4):289–307.doi:10.1163/156853993X00074.S2CID22043004.
^Gallagher, J. & Clifton-Hadley, R. S. (2005). "Tuberculosis in badgers; a review of the disease and its significance for other animals".Research in Veterinary Science.69 (3):203–217.doi:10.1053/rvsc.2000.0422.PMID11124091.S2CID12245569.
^abSidorovich, V. E., Rotenko, I. I., & Krasko, D. A. (2011, March).BadgerMeles meles spatial structure and diet in an area of low earthworm biomass and high predation risk. In Annales Zoologici Fennici (Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 1–16). Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing.
^Olsson, O., Wirtberg, J., Andersson, M., & Wirtberg, I. (1997).WolfCanis lupus predation on mooseAlces alces and roe deerCapreolus capreolus in south-central Scandinavia. Wildlife biology, 3(1), 13–25.
^Palomares, F., & Caro, T. M. (1999).Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores. The American Naturalist, 153(5), 492–508.
^Watson, J. (2010).The golden eagle. Poyser Monographs; A&C Black.
^Sørensen, O. J., Totsås, M., Solstad, T., & Rigg, R. (2008).Predation by a golden eagle on a brown bear cub. Ursus, 19(2), 190–193.
^Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989).Avian predation on mustelids in Europe 1: occurrence and effects on body size variation and life traits. Oikos, 205–215.
Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A. (2001)."BadgerMeles meles Linnaeus, 1758".Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II, Part 1b, Carnivores (Mustelidae and Procyonidae). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation. pp. 1232–1282.ISBN90-04-08876-8.
König, C. (1973).Mammals. London: William Collins.ISBN0-00-212080-1.
Waarneming.nl Originally a Dutch site, but you can change language at the top of the page. Sightings, pictures and distribution maps of European badgers in the Netherlands.
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